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Pre-Dynastic Egypt saw the rise of mastabas and tomb architecture. Within those tombs, ritualistic art symbolic art was held that took the form of pottery, figurines, and makeup grinding palettes. The materials used included clay, stone, ivory and bone. Much of these works were utilized to empower the dead in the afterlife and to give protection.
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During the Sumerian period, city-states and agriculture have been established. Humans serve their gods (polytheistic society). Religion plays a part in daily life and art begins to reflect that. Works made out of stone, alabaster, and bronze are used to assist in worship. Accounting is recorded in clay. (German).
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Found in a temple of Ianna, this vase shows what the people of Uruk valued. Like a lasagna, you can see layers that start as a river, crops, animals, workers, people with offerings, until you get to the top and probable king and Ianna. All of this tell you the hierarchy of the culture at the time. Image Credit: Amin, Osama Shukir Muhammed. “Warka Vase,” Wikipedia, 19 May 2019, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Warka_vase_(background_retouched).jpg. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
This abstracted female figure has a lot of unknowns about it. According to the Brooklyn Museum, it might have a large nose so the statue could "breathe if it had a soul in it". It was found in a grave, so it was related to some death ritual or ceremony. Image Credit: Brooklyn Museum, www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/4225. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
The Early Dynastic Period was marked by the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. Items like ritual palettes featured battles and figures in hieratic scale which demonstrated the power of said figure. Tombs still were on the simpler side and did not feature wall paintings. Limestone and mud bricks were prevalent as there wasn't much wood. (“The Early Dynastic Period.”)
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The Palette of Narmer is important because it is the earliest known work to show the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. There are a few symbols that demonstrate this. First, you have the lotus (Upper Egypt) and the papyrus (Lower Egypt). Then you have the Double Crown, which is the combination of the White (Upper) and Red (Lower) crowns. Bat is featured on the top. Image Credit: Egyptian Museum, egyptianmuseumcairo.eg/artefacts/narmer-palette-collection/. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
These seemingly everyday figures were meant to be the proxy of the offerers at the temples. Their wide eyes and clasped hands show full attention to be given to the gods. Image Credit: Amin, Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin. “Female and Male Votive Figures,” Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/standing-male-worshipper-from-the-square-temple-at-eshnunna-tell-asmar/?tl=standing-male-worshipper-from-the-square-temple-at-eshnunna-tell-asmarsidebar=asia-before-1000-b-c-e. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
During the Old Kingdom Era, funerary complexes get bigger and bigger. This was thanks to kings exercising power to give the region stability. Projects like the Great Pyramids required a lot of administration organization and this kings had it! More and more rituals began to surround burials. Images were quite stylized still and materials included stone, clay, ivory, and bone to make items for burial chambers. (Calvert.)
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This funerary sculpture highlights an important factor in the rendering of a "normal person". This scribe, who would have held a high position, has very realistic features. He has tan/red skin, glassy eyes, and a tummy; interesting when compared to the portrayal of pharaohs. His tools surround him. (Harris) Image Credit: Décamps, Christian, and The Louvre. The Louvre, 2015, collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010006582. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
Ram in a Thicket is a sculpture made out of luxurious materials including lapis lazuli, a material that symbolized divinity. Goats are heavily featured in Sumerian art, perhaps because they were one of the first domesticated animals (German). Using these types of materials for this sculpture says they must've held it in high esteem. Image Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum. “Ram in a Thicket,” Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/mid_00167730_001.jpg. -
This pyramid was the first and largest building the Giza complex. Because of these pyramids, there was a who pop up city next to it to support the workers; this project was a national effort, built by paid workers. Inside was a burial chamber and a complex counterweight system. Image Credit: Hungarian Snow. “Khufu,” Flickr, 21 Sept. 2007, www.flickr.com/photos/19546327@N00/36976591070/. Accessed 9 Feb. 2026. -
In this relief, we see Ti, large in scale, surrounded by servants. We see them in composite pose on a river filled with fish and hippos. The hippos represent chaos and low and behold, Ti is helping control chaos by hunting them. Image Credit: Stokstad, Marilyn. “Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt,” Digital Collections - University at Buffalo Libraries, 26 Aug. 2011, digital.lib.buffalo.edu/items/show/35535. Accessed 9 Feb. 2026. -
This period featured the first empire which included a militaristic focus led by a divinely appointed king. Sargon is the most well-known king of this period.
Steles like the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin provided images that can be considered early forms of propaganda. Clay, stone, and bronze were common materials of the time.
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This Akkadian work is a significant because it shows Naram Sin as the divine leader. In the sky, you can see stars representing two (of the three) god: Ishtar and Sin. The composition situates Naram Sin at the top, with his warriors and enemies below him. This stele shows the intensity and violence in the world of Akkadians (Jones). Image credit: Jones, Muffet. boisestate.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/45/2020/07/image9-12.jpeg. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
During the Egyptian Middle Kingdom Period, advances like rock cut tombs (with painted walls), and more realistic portraiture that include the subject matter of nobility and high level officials. Monumental architecture continued and more funerary objects were being included that featured everyday life. Materials were mainly wood, limestone, and painted plaster
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Babylonia flourishes with centralized rule, which are administered to the people by their leader and gods. Architecture is used to announce the power of this society to its people and visitors. Glazed bricks, metals, clay, and stones are common materials. (German)
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In this piece, we see two figures, Amenemhat and Hemet, in composite form. They are surrounded by smaller images of accoutrements that will follow the deceased into the afterlife, including a worker! This demonstrates the increasing inclusion of the day-to-day in burial tombs. Image Credit: Art Institute of Chicago. Art Institute of Chicago, www.artic.edu/artworks/127859/stela-of-amenemhat-and-hemet. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
The Inner Coffin of Gua shows how everyday people started to receive "directions" to the afterlife ala Book of the Dead. It provided spells that could be useful. There was also a map of the underworld on the bottom. Image Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum. British Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/36131001. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
This stele features a bas relief of King Hammurabi and the god Shamash. Hammurabi and Shamash are positioned as if they are having a respectful conversation. Below are 280 detailed laws written in cuneiform. Image Credit: GrandPalaisRmn, and Franck Raux. Https://Collections.louvre.fr/, 2009, collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010174436. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
The Temple of Karnak was only for royals, priests , and gods. Featuring soaring columns, obelisks (which represented the connection between heaven and the world), and various decorations. Their gods were represented on the exteriors and their prayers on the interiors while featuring religious imagery related to rituals and ceremonies. Image Credit: Jarvis, Dennis. “Egypt-3B-021 - Festival Hall.” Flickr, 28 Sept. 2004, www.flickr.com/photos/archer10/2217355182/. Accessed 21 Feb. 2026. -
The New Kingdom was marked as the beginning of the use of the term "pharaoh". We see giant temple complexes, elaborate funeral rituals, military expansion, and changes in religious values. We see more papyrus and materials like hard stone.
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This is one of a few statues from Karnak that feature Hatshepsut kneeling and making an offering. She has been masculinized in her features. This is because there wasn't usually female pharaohs. She has the markers of a king - the false beard and wadjet, in addition to broad shoulders and small breasts. (The Met.) Image Credit: The Metropolitan Museum. The Metropolitan Museum, collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/544449/1179859/main-image. Accessed 22 Feb. 2026. -
This alter features Akhenaten and his queen Nefertiti. We see the god Aten as the disc above. Its rays touching the royal family, as to show their divine right to rule. Their features are elongated and alien-like, which implies they are other-wordly. They are taking their rightful spot between humans and the gods. Image Credit: Neues Museum. Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/7670423810_da89de5145_o-scaled.jpg. Accessed 22 Feb. 2026. -
Ramses II built this grand temple for his queen and Hathor. It is built in Nubia which was a reminder to those people of his power. Featuring his wife next to Hathor reinforced his divine right to rule. There is possibly some ties to solar alignment, which would point to this location as a ceremonial setting of sorts. (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica.) Image Credit: Jarvis, Dennis. Britannica, www.britannica.com/place/Abu-Simbel. Accessed 22 Feb. 2026. -
Assyrians are known as some of the fiercest people during the Near East era. The king becomes even more powerful and will enforce divine rule. Militaries grow large, palaces become more of a focus, and giant works like lamassus are made. The commonly found materials of this time are ivory, alabaster, stone and copper. (German)
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This Greek period is marked by repetitive geometric shapes and stick figures. Ceramics like craters still featured registrars and also "horror vacui", every space was filled. Many of the objects we have today are for funeral purposes like grave markers or vessels for libations for the dead. We see faience, ceramics, and bronze items.
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The lamassu is a combination of a bull, eagle, and human. These very large protectors were placed in important doorways in palaces. Their scale and five legs (to be see as strong from any possible angle), served to convey the empire's strength. They wear a horned hat which also equates to power. (The Met). -
This period is characterized by incoming influences from the Ancient Near East, Egypt, and other Aegean cultures due to expanded trade. We see more flora and fauna in designs as well as more mythical creatures. Design techniques include the black figure styles. Greek containers used in export beginning popping up all around here. We continue to see terracotta and faience, and less horror vacui. Maybe this is to make Greek exports more appealing to other cultures.
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The Etruscans were known for their access to trade, metals like iron, copper, and tin, and prefered terracotta. They had lively, active, animated figures (especially compared to the Greeks). They prioritized individuality, gestures, and movement. Their works reflected tenderness, joy, and emotions. Funerary relics were common and their tombs were filled with art representing their needs in the afterlife. As time progressed, more and more references to Romans and other neighbors appear.
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In this krater, we see key aspects of the Geometric Period: horror vacui, order registers, repetitive geometrics, and abstracted figures. The registers show figures in mourning on the upper band, and the lower band features warriors, complete with shields and spears. These show strong cultural ties to the deceased and to the glory of the warrior. Image Credit: The Met. The Metropolitan Museum, images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/gr/original/DP-42350-001.jpg. Accessed 3 Mar. 2026. -
This griffin jug shows a mythological creature, and features deer and a feline. Additionally, this surface is quite filled with geometric designs, we see guilloche, diamonds, dots, and more. Marks are making the pattern. With this, we are seeing outside design influences making their way onto the ceramic form. Image Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum. The Metropolitan Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1873-0820-385?selectedImageId=109215001. Accessed 3 Mar. 2026. -
The Archaic Period is characterised by harmonious proportions and symmetry. It's less rigid and more naturalistic. We see Korous and Kore, a nude male and clothed female, respectively. And the archaic smile appears which meant divinity or well being.
Painted ceramics featured epics. Freestanding marble sculptures were placed in or near temples as memorials. We see detail on in carved fabrics and muscles. The Doric Order appears on capitals of columns. -
This relief displays Ashurbanipal and his Queen relaxing in a garden. Servants bring offerings in a lush surrounding. Ashurbanipal gazes at a severed head in a tree, maybe relishing in his power. All of this trumpets the power of the king. Image Credit:
The Trustees of the British Museum. “237000001,” British Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/237000001. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
Walls of palaces also were places to relay stories of power. In this wall relief, Ashurbanipal is seen hunting lions. It alludes to military conquest. This ritual was a spectacle to entertain the people of Assyria and show strength. You can see horses, gazelles, lions, and people in it. (Zucker) Image Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum. “123559001,” British Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/123559001. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
Persia was unique in the fact that it accepted many people of different religions and cultural backgrounds. Order was first and foremost. With that many different people, administrational and empirical power was key. Stone, metal, glazed bricks, and gold were key components in art. Multiple languages were tolerated.
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This cylinder exists to relay the story of Cyrus II's conquest of Babylon. This declaration talks about with the God of Babylon, Marduk, Cyrus II will restore their communities. According to SmartHistory, this is one of the first known human bill of rights. Image Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum. “Cylinder,” British Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
This statue was found near the Acropolis. We see the Kore (clothed female) with unusual clothes. She is wearing a peplos. Normally these pieces are painted colorfully and there is evidence that this could be Artemis. She might be missing a bow and arrow and a diadem. Her peplos was decorated with lotus and animals, a continuation of the previous period's flora and fauna motifs. (Zucker.) Image Credit: Acropolis Museum. Acropolis Museum, www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/statue-kore-peplos-kore.
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This historical version of a billboard tells the tale of Darius I. It even has three languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian, which helps dissimulates the message further. Ahura Mazda, the god of Zoroastrianism, is featured above. Darius' enemies around him as well as his allies. (Mark) Image Credit: dynamosquito. “Stone Record at Behistun,” Flickr, 20 Sept. 2009, www.flickr.com/photos/dynamosquito/3936190483/. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
These capitals signified power. Set atop giant columns, these would appear very imposing. They also were stone instead of mud-brick. Image Credit: s1ingshot. “National Museum of Iran,” Flickr, 15 Aug. 2015, www.flickr.com/photos/s1ingshot/20388181404/. Accessed 8 Feb. 2026. -
This sarcophagus features two figures in a style that resembles the Greek Archaic period, complete with the archaic smile. Although in comparison to the very stiff Greek poses, this one shows compassion and a relaxed banquet. They have big eyes similar to votives of the past. The portrayal of the woman being the same height as the man reflects a certain equality in the culture too. Image Credit: Zucker, Steven. Flickr, 17 Nov. 2014, www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/15623415937/. -
This sculpture clearly shows the Greek's love of the warrier. Culturally, dying in battle is a very glorified and respected way to die. This figure is propaganda for the ideal man: strong, calm, composed, complete with archaic smile. The pose has dynamism to it compared to korous. This warrior has his shield still up and grasps his weapon... he is ready to fight until the end. Image Credit: Collegesidekick.com, assets.coursehero.com/study-guides/lumen/images/boundless-arthistory.jpeg. -
In this period, there is even more realism and idealism. We see the "severe style" which is ordered and composed with cropped hair and expressionless faces. Simplicity, vigor, strength, and intelligence were valued. We see the Polykleitos Canon of Proportions which the human form is seven heads high. Drapery is even more realistic in sculpture. We also see more dynamic in the poses, including contrapposto styles. The human body in its ideal form is on display.
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In the contrapposto pose, this statue (one of two), shows the glory of being an ideal warrior. Their shield and weapons are missing not, but before they had them. Gone is the archaic smile, and the expressionless face might be interpreted as an unshakable demeanor in battle. Adding to the realism is inlaid eyes and copper lips and nipples. Image Credit: Museo Archeologico Nazionale Reggio Calabria. Smarthistory.org, smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Riace-1.jpeg. Accessed 3 Mar. 2026. -
This sculpture once again showcases a more realistic and ideal form. There is a dynamic equilibrium in his stance. Solid yet outreached. Either Zeus or Poseidon is ready to throw something. Vigor and strength is on display here. Inlays add to the realism. Human idealism is shown in this god's form. Something to strive for. Image credit: Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports / Archaeological Receipts Fund. Zeus (or Poseidon) of Cape Artemision. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.
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The High Classical Period is consider the golden age of the classical periods. The Acropolis is rebuilt to show that the power is back and to celebrate their victory over the Persians. It is interested in the ideal human, refining monuments and architecture optically, and more dynamic scenes like the sculptures featured on pediments. We see the ionic column arrive.
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This carving of Athena was outside of a temple dedicated to Athena near the Acropolis. It is a bit unusual because there is a bit more movement in the pose than we are used to seeing. However, we see the detail in the drapery of the clothes, which semi-reveal the body. We are starting to see more erotism. (Zucker). Image Credit: Kitsakis, Niko. Wikipedia, 2024, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Nike_adjusting_sandal.jpg/960px-Nike_adjusting_sandal.jpg. Accessed 3 Mar. 2026. -
This grave stele shows a scene in the domestic realm but for funerary purposes. We see a relief that shows a servant tending to a woman who is seated with a stool. This indicates that she is of an upper class. The home was the woman's sphere, which is where this is set. We see some very detailed representation of fabric. (Zucker.) Image Credit: Kallimachos. Funerary Stele of Hegeso. Wikipedia, 2012, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_StC3A8le_d27HC3A8gC3A8sC3B4.jpg. Accessed 3 Mar. 2026. -
This bronze chimera showcases the Etruscan's metalsmithing skills. The chimera, borrowed from Greek mythology), was the emblem of Arezzo. We see the combination of lion, goat, and snake. Typical of the Classical period, we see Greek influence, more naturalist styling, and of course, a key material: bronze. This piece was an offering to the sun god, Tinia. (Becker.) Image Credit: Zucker, Steve. Flickr, 15 Mar. 2015, www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/16778496707/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2026. -
In this period, aesthetics change from Polykleitos' rules of proportion to Lysippos' rules, which ads an extra head. The figures become taller and have smaller heads. Poses become even more dynamic and now emotive. They reach more into our personal space and "world". More sensuality is found in female sculptures and we see the first monumental female nude.
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Here we see a sensual depiction of Aphrodite. She is about to bath and is unaware of us viewers. She is in the pudica pose which alludes to shame and vulnerability. Her body is realistic and her clothing is held at a distance, emphasizing even more her nakedness. Note: Pictured is a replica by Romans in the 2nd century AD, currently in The Ludovisi collection. Image Credit: Sosnovskiy, Sergey. Ancientrome.ru, 2007, ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=5886. -
The Hellenistic Period began with the death of Alexander the Great. We see extreme expressions in the work with dramatic and complex poses. The serpentine pose showcases twists. Realism includes age, different classes, and genders. Shadows add drama in carvings. Suffering, struggle, and tension are common themes. Storytelling is a major focus. We see the Corinthian column arrive.
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This tomb shows Alexander the Great, which is complete with lion's skin in a reference to his bloodline to "Herkules". It has much action, realism, and detail. One side depicts a battle and the other a hunt. The fabrics shows movement. The battle shows Greeks vs. Persians, while the hunt shows them working together. This reflects AtG's overall military strategy. (Zucker.) Image Credit: Bjelica. Wikipedia, 2025, upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg.
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This statue showcases the serpentine pose as well as deep, realistic portrayal of emotions. The artists utilize deep carving to allow shadows to create even more drama. In the sculpture, we can see the use of negative space and snakes to add interest and movement throughout the composition of the piece. The draping of fabrics showcase technical expertise. Photo Credit: Steve, Zucker. Flickr, 6 Dec. 2019, www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/50027583313/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2026. -
Shown in the adlocutio pose, this statue of course shows an orator. Only his outreached arm is bare, perhaps even emphasizing a bare or transparent message he is delivering. Once again, the similarities to the Romans grow closer... the subject is even wearing a Roman toga. It is quite serious in tone and features realistic fabric drapery. Bronze is once again used. Image Credit: corneliagraco. Flickr, 11 Aug. 2010, www.flickr.com/photos/corneliagraco/5224254259/in/photostream/. -