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The Printing Press, a device that allows the mass production of uniform printed matter, mainly in the form of books, newspapers, and pamphlets. Originating from China, the Printing Press revolutionized society therefore be further developed in Europe in the 15th century by Johannes Gutenberg and his invention the Gutenberg press, the printing press helped democratize information which fueled major historical movements. Ex: Protestant Reformation. -
Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire led a conquest. He led a siege that lasted 55 days which came to an end on May 29, 1453 when the Ottomans breached Constantinople's ancient land and ended the Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was surrounded by land and sea cannons maintained constant barrage of the city's wall. This fall left the once powerful Christian Europe defenseless against the Muslim invasion, which ultimately allowed for the Ottoman Empire an uninterrupted expansion into Europe. -
The Tudor Dynasty started when Henry VII succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between houses of Lancaster and York which led to the finding of the Tudor house succeeding from Henry VII - Elizabeth I, the Tudor dynasty went on for 118 years. During this time period England developed into one of the leading European colonial powers. This time period saw many changes such a as the prominent part in the cultural Renaissance taking place in Europe, even the three changes of official religion.
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In 1492 Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand issued the Alhambra Decree, which ordered the expulsion of all Jews from their kingdoms. Just months before Columbus's voyage to the Americas this helped with the lighting the Requisition. Isabella and Ferdinand were eager for a Catholic Kingdom which made the new Asian route that Columbus was taking a political and economic need since the Spanish economy was crumbling as thousands of Jews departed liquidating assets because of the expulsion. -
Commissioned by Pope Julius II, Michelangelo Buonarroti created the ceiling frescoes, most known as the Sistine Ceiling. One of Vatican City's most cherished possessions is this ceiling is most known as an extensive collection of Renaissance art that some of the most famous frescoes which were created some of the worlds most well-known artists in depicted in this ceiling. Michelangelo created one of the worlds most important paintings which tells many stories in distinct areas of the narrative. -
October 31, 1517 Martin Luther approached the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany and nailed a piece of paper that contained the 95 Theses which would ultimately begin the Protestant Reformation. In this these Luther had posted his frustration with the practice of the Roman Catholic Church which led to him writing the 95 Theses and because of his outbreak it was translated from Latin to German which was distributed widely, which led to the excommunication of Luther. -
As Martin Luther attended the Diet of Worms to answer the charges of heresy because he was excommunicated by the pope. As he attended the Diet of Worms he was told to recant his writings, but as he defied the Church and Pope became one of the most greatest pieces of oratory in world history. Due to his actions he was declared an outlaw and a heretic, but he was ultimately protected by powerful German princes. Luther significantly altered the Western Thought with his works and beliefs. -
A representation of Machiavelli's effort to provide a guide for political action based on lessons of history and own experiences were created and kept in " The Prince" by Machiavelli. Machiavelli had many beliefs which shocked many readers but had ultimately started Machiavellian which became a synonym for political maneuvers marked as cunning, duplicity, or bad faith. So in attempt Machiavelli helped offer a new political career after his death as that was one of the main reasons for The Prince -
Passed by Parliament, defined the right of Henry VII to be the supreme head on earth of the Church of England or known as the Anglican Church. This action severed the ecclesiastical links with Rome. Ultimately establishing a national Church which was under the monarchs Church helping fuel Henry's desire for an annulment of his marriage to his first wife. This marked a pivotal movement in the English Reformation. Which solidified the treason act it making it a crime to defy the kings authority. -
In this published art of Copernicus argued that the Sun was actually in the center rather than the Earth. This book had many reasons on why not to accept and not believe this claim as Ptolemaic astronomy, as it was a representation in the Epitome of Regiomontanus was not overly complex nor inaccurate. In this the claim by Copernicus was backed up as there was a vision of the universe as coherent and had an integrated system where planets moved together in elegant harmony. -
Most known as the Catholic Church's formal response to the Protestant Reformation it was held in three parts which ultimately responded to issues at hand and enacted the formal Roman Catholic answer to the doctrine challenge of known Protestants. This council was chastened but consolidated the church and papacy of Roman Catholicism of modern history. With that the council was important with the sweeping of decrees on self-reformation and the dogmatic definitions that clarified every doctrine.
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Peace of Augsburg was an ultimate treaty that ended religious conflicts between the Schmalkaldic League of Lutheran princes and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Which ultimately established the principle known as "Ciuus Regio, Eis Religio" "whose realm, his religion" allowed the ruler of each state within the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism as that persons official religion of that territory. As a step in religious settlement it excluded other Protestant sects. -
This massacre was plotted by Catherine de' Medici and was carried out by Roman Catholic nobles other citizens. The reason for this massacre was because there was an attempt on Admiral Coligny's life four days later wedding which failed after the marriage of Catherine's daughter and her Huguenot husband. Due to the thought of assassination attempt would uncover Catherine's true identity she met secretly to plot an extermination of the Huguenot leaders who were still in Paris for the wedding. -
The war of the Three Henry's was the eighth and final French War of Religion that was between 3 Men named Henry: King Henry III, Catholic Henry of Guise, and Protestant Henry of Navarre. This was due to a succession crisis after the king's brother died which led to Protestant Henry the heir to the throne - Catholic Henry opposed. Due to this conflict between the 3 Henry ending with an assassination of Henry of Guise and Henry III which led Henry of Navarre the heir to become King Henry IV
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The defeat of the Spanish Armada was defeated by combinations of effective English naval tactics which included the use of fire ships and more faster-reloading cannons, plus severe water conditions. This ultimately happened because King Philip II of Spain sought to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I (England ) to restore Catholicism and the stopping of English support for Dutch rebels which had religious politic tensions which in the favor of the Spanish Armada failed with England's victory. -
A decree by King Henry IV of France helped grant substantial rights to the Calvinist Protestants- Huguenots, which ended the French Wars of Religion. This Decree granted freedom of consciences, public worship ( certain areas ), and even helped provide civil rights with Catholicism remaining the national religion. This Decree was controversial but upheld Protestant freedom and ultimately established a special court for Protestants and Catholics for disputes that would arise from the edict. -
Beginning with the Defenestration of Prague in 1618 was historically significant when political and religious figures were thrown out of windows in Czechia. The Defenestration of Prague ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which was a series of peace treaties signed from May to October in the cities of Osnabrück and Munster. The Thirty Years' War had four different phases, Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and Franco-Swedish.
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The Royalists (King's supporters) and Parliamentarians (Cromwell supporters) led to the English Civil War, as it was centered on the distribution of power between the government and monarchy. The three stages of angst ended with Charles I's execution in 1649, establishing a republic in England under the Parliament. Cromwell was seen as Lord Protector until the monarchy restored in 1660, the Cromwell Burger was a stack of historical events, key figures, outcomes, and related concepts.
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The Reign of Louis XIV at Versailles without regent was after Louis XIV too personal control from Cardinal Mazarin, establishing France as Europe's most dominant power through the course of absolute monarchy. Louis centralized rule from Versailles, serving as a gilded cage for the nobility. Louis moved the court to Versailles to symbol the royal power, cultural center, and the tool to keep powerful nobles occupied and dependent on his favor, weakening their independent power limiting threat.
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The Glorious Revolution established England as a constitutional monarchy which shifted power from absolute monarch to Parliament, ensuring Protestant succession and laying the foundation for modern democracy. James II was peacefully overthrown by Protestant William of Orange and Mary II, invited by Parliament to secure Protestant rule after Catholic rule to place down parliamentary sovereignty, shifting power creating a constitutional monarchy with great parliament authority. -
This pivotal piece of legislation limited the powers of the monarchy and helped establish the constitutional monarchy of England. This bill declared several rights and liberties for the people of England, even the right to free parliaments/elections, prohibiting the monarch from levying taxes without consent and more. Locke's 2 treaties of government was published following the glorious revolution influencing democratic thought and the American Revolution. -
Officially ending the War of Spanish Succession by settling the dispute over the Spanish throne after Charles II death by placing Louis XIV's grandson Philip V on the Spanish throne but with the only condition that he and his heirs renounce claims to France preserving the European balance of power. -
The War of Austrian Succession was the beginning of Maria Theresa's reign as it was sparked by European powers which challenged her inheritance after her father's death. Losing Silesia to Fredrick the Great, Maria was still able to secure her throne and modernize Habsburg lands. Becoming a pivotal figure in 18th century politics in Europe.
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Diderot's Encyclopedia had a main volume, the core 17 volumes of text 11 volumes of plates were published in this time period, they were monumental 18th-century French projects to compile all human knowledge. They became key texts of the enlightenment by promoting many enlightenment ideas, even though they were undertaken by enlightenment thinkers, it was a significant challenge to traditional authority.
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This war was a massive global conflict between the powers of Prussia, France, Austria, and Britain, ending with the Treaty of Paris, which Britain became the dominant colonial power, gaining Canada and French territories, while France was able to cede lands to Spain because of the Treaty of Paris, which ultimately set the stage for future rivalries, such as the American Revolution.
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This Revolution transformed a handcraft economy Britain to a machine-driven Britain which started with mechanized textiles and social shifts with harsh working conditions to set the stage for modern industrial society. Britain met this revolution first since it possessed unique combinations of abundant coal, colonial trade networks, supportive governments, entrepreneurship, and culture of innovation, ultimately making it the ideal starting point for industrialization.
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Catherine the Great reigned Russia through the "Golden Age" marking significant territorial expansion and much more, modernizing efforts by the Enlightenment as serfdom worsened, even culminating in the Rebellion of Pugachev, which solidifying Russia's status as a major power in Europe through military strength. Catherine overthrew her husband in a bloodless coup to make sure she became the soul ruler, corresponding enlightenment ideas and autocratic rule to rule Russia.
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Also known as the Peasants' War, it was the largest, and popular uprising in Russian History. It was led by Don Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev which helped pose a significant threat to Catherine the Greats reign and also led to the permanent hardening of Russian autocracy.
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The American Revolution was inspired by Enlightenment's ideas as those ideas field the core philosophy for independence, reason, rights, consent, etc. Adam Smith's published work of "The Wealth of Nations" offered revolutionary ideas on free markets, limited government, and self-interest that aligned with enlightenment ideas and providing a foundational economic blueprint for the development of the United States of America. -
Kicking off in 1789, the French Revolution was fueled by economic crisis and Enlightenment ideas under King Louis VI and Marie Antoinette. Leading to the storming of Bastille on July 14th as a revolt symbol which led to the forming of the National Assembly and the creation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man Citizen which asserted liberty, popular sovereignty, and equality which set France to overthrow the monarchy, establishing new rights. -
This was a successful slave revolt that led to Haiti's independence from France, which made it the first free black republic the world's first sovereign nation to be established by former slaves, which was led by figures such as Toussaint Louvereture Jean-Jacque Dessalines, which helped end French colonial rule and slavery in the French colony of Saint-Domingue.
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The Reign of Terror was a brutal phase in the French Revolution that was marked of mass arrests and executions of "perceived" enemies of the revolution to enforce revolutionary ideas and eliminate threats. Thousands were executed, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette which were leading and during Frances violent reign of terror. The Reign of Terror ended with Robespierre's own downfall which revealed extreme paranoia and violence that consumed the leaders. -
The Coup of 18 Brumaire was a pivotal event where Napoleon overthrew the weak French Directory, which established the French Consulate and is widely seen as the end of the ultimate French Revolution which ushered in an era where Napoleon consolidated the power, he ultimately became the First Consul and eventually the Emperor, which marked a shift from a revolutionary chaos to a centralized rule. -
Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France at the Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, which marked a pivotal event where Napoleon dramatically took the crown from the former Pope Pius VII and placing it on his head. This symbolized his power as he derived from himself and the nation (not just the church) which established the first French Empire and a brand new dynasty. -
When Emperor Francis II abdicated his title to the Holy Roman Empire, due to pressure from Napoleons military dominance the ultimate formation of the Confederation of Rhine. Francis II chose to simply become Emperor of Austria rather than risk Napoleon choosing to up rise his imperial throne, which effectively ended the millennium-old institution. -
Napoleons final defeat was the Battle of Waterloo by Wellington and Blucher which ended his empire-leading to the Congress of Vienna where Prince Metternich simply guided major European powers to restore monarchies, creating a balance of power (system) which helped with the suppression of revolutionary ideas, simply ushering a conservative era focusing on stability over liberalism or nationalism. -
The Congress of Vienna met, it met as an international diplomatic conference that was held in Vienna and Austria to reorganize Europe after the downfall of Napoleon. Metternich led the great powers to restore conservative monarchies, establish balance of power, and redrew the territorial borders to percent future conflicts. Meetings of The Congress of Vienna shaped European geopolitics for decades. Meeting would prevent widespread continental wars but ignored nationalist and liberal movements. -
This was a period of conservative European politics that was dominated by Metternich. The Age of Metternich was characterized by the suppression of nationalism and liberalism, the maintenance of the Balance of Power, and the restoration of absolute monarchies. The Age of Metternich was defined from the Congress of Vienna through the Liberal Revolutions of 1848. The goal of Metternich was to establish long-term stability security, by squashing revolutionary threats to the Austrian Empire.
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The Carlsbad Decree was a set of reactionary, repressive measures that were enacted by the German Confederation that was pushed heavily by Metternich to suppress liberal and nationalist movements. The decrees were issued in Carlsbad aiming to stifle political opposition and to unify the German states under a conservative, authoritarian, police state. The decrees were ratified by the Bundestag of the German Confederation after being drafted, serving as the pillar of the "Metternich System" -
The Peterloo Massacre occurred on August 16, when a cavalry charged into a crowd of 60,000 peaceful protesters at St. Peter's Field in Manchester, England. The protesters gathered to demand parliamentary reform and the right to vote. These demands left 18 people dead and 400 -700 people dead. This Massacre became a mocking revolt by James Wroe, because soldiers were hurting innocent citizens. The revolt ended up with the passing of the Six Acts, designed to suppress radical meetings. -
Napoleon died at age 51 on May 5th 1821. Napoleon Bonaparte died while in exile on the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, following the defeat of Waterloo. Napoleon, the former French emperor was imprisoned by the British. When he died there was an autopsy conclusion he died of stomach cancer, although there was speculation about arsenic poisoning that persisted. His final moments was in pain, though delirious, his final words concluded his army and Josephine. -
The Decembrist revolt was a failed, arming uprising on December 26th in 1825, in St. Petersburg. This revolt was led by liberal Russian noble officers seeking to abolish serfdom and establish a constitution. This was triggered by succession confusion after Alexander I's death, where 3,000 soldiers refused to swear allegiance to Nicholas I, this revolt was soon crushed by loyalist artillery, resulting in executions and Siberian exile for other leaders. -
The July Revolution was 3 days in France where the overthrowing of King Charles X of the House of Bourbon This ended the Bourbon Restoration and replacing in with the constitutional July Monarchy under Louis-Philippe. This revolution was sparked by the restrictive ordinances, installing a liberal, bourgeoisie-friendly government. Parisians erupted this rebellion, erecting barricades and engaging in armed conflict with royal troops leading to the triumph of wealthy bourgeoisie over aristocracy. -
The Revolutions of 1830 in France and Belgium were pivotal liberal uprisings that restricted European politics significantly. France's "July" Revolution saw Louis-Phillipe taking control after the attempt to restrict civil liberties by Charles X. The Belgian revolution was inspired by this one. Breaking out in August, the Belgian successfully created an independent kingdom from the Netherlands. Both of these were Liberal revolts changing leadership and Independence. -
The Great Reform act gained Royal Assent on June 7th to overhaul the British electoral system. This revolt abolished 56 of the "rotten boroughs," redistributed seats to industrial cities. This reform expanded voting rights to the middle-class male property holders, in attempts to prevent revolution, increase representation, and ultimately modernize the political system. This act addressed the outdated electoral system, allowing for significant under representation of urban areas and corruption. -
The Revolutions were known as the "Springtime of Nations". These were widespread, largely unsuccessful uprisings across Europe that were driven by liberal, nationalist, and socialist demands for constitutional governance and social reform. The initial overturn of the regimes of conservative monarchies were largely regained. Against the turmoil, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx published the "Communist Manifesto" in February 1848, outlining class struggle and calling for a proletariat revolution. -
This war was the major 19th-century conflict fought primarily on the Crimean Peninsula Black Sea. This pitted the Russian Empire against the alliance formed by the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia. This war is considered the first "modern" war due to the introduction of industrial-age machinery, with extensive use of the telegraph, pioneering, and widespread use of war correspondence and photography documenting the conflict for the public's.
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The Franco-Austrian War is referring to the 2nd Italian War of Independence. This was a pivotal conflict where the French Empire the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austrian Empire, leading to the 1st major step toward Italian Unification. There were 2 wars in this period. The Battle of Magenta was a French victory that forced Austrians to retreat from Milan. The Battle of Solferino was the final engagement. The largest bloodiest Battle. Both leading to the founding of the Red Cross -
Called the Technological Revolution, this was a period of rapid scientific discovery mass production. This transformed modern life between 1870 and 1914. This revolution focused on the expansion of steel, electricity, and petroleum. This revolution was considered to end with the outbreak of WW1, focusing industrial to military production. Through this revolution communication globally became possible through the expansion of the telegraph telephone. Leading to major Socio-Economic impacts.
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Serfdom abolishment in Russia correlated to the Emancipation Manifesto. Over 23 million people gained personal freedom and rights, such as marrying without consent owning property. Serfs would be legally freed but still were tied to their land for a 2 year transition period and had to pay for allotments. Even though Alexander II granted the serfs freedom, the slow redemption from being freed led peasants in debt. It mostly affected privately owned serfs, with state-owned still owned. -
This unification was sparked by nationalism and identity, and was led by Count Cavour, who was able to secure the northern alliances, and revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, who conquered the south. Combined the political and military efforts was able to unify the peninsula under King Victor Emmanuel 2 of Piedmont-Sardinia. The Unification of Italy ended in the annexation of various states of the Italian peninsula, resulting in the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. -
This was deeply important as it affirmed Prussia would lead a future German state without Austria. This resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation in its partial replacement by unifying all north German states in the North German Confederation excluding Austria and the South German states. This war was a swift conflict between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Orchestrated largely by Otto von Bismark, the war shifted hegemony over German states from Vienna to Berlin. -
Between the 2nd French Empire, Napoleon and coalition of German states, led by Prussia, Bismark. This war resulted in a decisive German victory, fundamentally reshaping Europe by creating the unified German Empire, ending French hegemony. Otto von Bismark sought to unify the remaining southern German states by provoking a common enemy, sparking disputes over the Spanish throne. Also, pinning France and Prussia against each other. Ending with King Wilhelm I proclaiming the title, German Emperor
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This was a high-stake diplomatic summit where the major European powers redrew the map of the Balkans. Bismark hosted this congress, in hope to prevent European war, revising the Treaty of San Stefano, granting Russia massive gains. This congress averted immediate war, it was viewed as a failure to establish peace. This congress would give British Cyprus, and create independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania.Serbia felt anger towards Austria is created tensions leading to assassination. -
This as a secret military diplomatic agreement between the German Empire, Kingdom of Italy, and Austria-Hungary, Orchestrated by Bismark, this pact expanded the existing Dual Alliance. This alliance would pledge for specific protections/neutrality between the three. They were all powered by protection, isolation, and prevention. This would characterize the pre-World War I diplomacy against the Triple Entente. Despite how strong it seemed it was fragile due to Italy Austria's bad blood. -
This was a diplomatic summat that formalized the "Scramble for Africa". Organized by Bismarck, 14 nations met to establish rules for the colonization of Africa to avoid armed conflict between the powers. Through this, claiming a territory, a power needed to demonstrate it administered and controlled the area, rather than just declaring it. Through this all 90% of Africa was taken control by these powers, ending slave trade, making free trade navigation, and installing the notification system.
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The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal and a landmark of Antisemitism in the French Third Republic. This scandal focused on Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery officer who was wrongfully convicted of treason- leading to a decade- long struggle that split French society into 2 warring camps. Dreyfusard(justice individual rights) anti-Dreyfusard(military honor national security) Dreyfus was publicly shamed but a novelist accused and showed light to the gov. drawing international attention -
This was a massive wave of social political unrest which forced the first ever major constitutional concessions from Tsar Nicholas II. Bloody Sunday occured on Jan. 22nd, when imperial guards fired on peaceful procession of workers, killing hundreds. Russia was then humiliated after the loss to Japan shattering the Tsars prestige. The loss and revolution led to creating the State Duma after forcing transition from abuse of autocracy to limited constitutional monarchy to save Tsar regime. -
This was informal but powerful alliance between Russia, France, and Great Britain. Not a single Treaty though, but 3 separate agreements linking the powers together in response to the threat of the Triple Alliance. This was put in place to resolve the long-standing colonial rivalries, effectively surrounding the German Empire with hostile powers on both east and west borders. Europe became divided and this "bipolar" system meant that conflict could quickly lead to a general European war. -
This crisis erupted when Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories that were occupied and administrated under the Treaty of Berlin. This unilateral move would shatter the delicate balance between the Balkans bringing Europe to the brink of general war. This was settled diplomatically when Russia, still recovering from earlier defeat backed down and forced Serbia to recognize the annexation, placing Austria, Russia, and Serbia in hostile situation against each other. -
Two consecutive conflicts that ended 5 centuries of Ottoman rule in Southeast Europe. Significantly reshaping regional borders and serving as the direct prelude to WW1 by intensifying national rivalries and shifting the balance of power among the Great Powers. The first war, was with the Balkan League when Russia encouraged to seize territory, ending with the Treaty of London. The second was started because of the division of the spoils, with Bulgaria sneak attacking Serbia Greek forces.
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This assassination was the spark that ignited World War 1. Gavrilo Princip, a 19 year-old Bosnian Serb who fatally shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Princip was a revolutionary student seeking to liberate South Slavs from Austrian rule. The Archduke 'driver took a wrong turn, stalling, Princip was able to shoot Franz at point-blank range. An ultimatum and rejection led to Austria declaring war on Serbia with German support, with Entente against them.