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A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. -
The Fall of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-day siege which had begun on 6 April. -
The Tudor dynasty reigned in England from 1485 to 1603, beginning with Henry VII and ending with Elizabeth I. This period was marked by significant events, including the end of the Wars of the Roses, the English Reformation, the start of England's overseas exploration, and the rise of the English Renaissance. The dynasty's five monarchs were Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. -
Alhambra Decree - edict issued in 1492 by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, that ordered the expulsion of practicing Jews from the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon
Reconquista - fall of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns by European Christian kingdoms against Muslim-ruled al-Andalus, which had previously been part of the Christian Visigothic realm before the Muslim Conquest of 711 -
. He worked on the commission, which Pope Julius II initiated in 1508, for four years, creating frescoes based on scenes from the Book of Genesis. He also later painted The Last Judgment on the altar wall, which was completed in 1541. -
Launches the Protestant Reformation, to challenge the Catholic Church's practice of selling "indulgences," which were said to grant forgiveness for sins -
Martin Luther was summoned to the diet in order to renounce or reaffirm his views in response to a Papal bull of Pope Leo X -
The Prince is a 16th-century political treatise written by the Italian diplomat, philosopher, and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli in the form of a realistic instruction guide for new princes. -
Anglican Church - Christian communion consisting of the autocephalous national and regional churches in full communion with the archbishop of Canterbury in England
Act of Supremacy - act of the English Parliament that declared King Henry VIII the "Supreme Head of the Church of England," officially separating the Church of England from the authority of the Pope and Rome -
Copernicus - Polish astronomer and mathematician famous for developing the heliocentric model of the solar system -
The Catholic reformation
a 16th-century ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church that served as a response to the Protestant Reformation -
Recognizes "Cuius regio, eius religion" which means "whose realm, his religion" in latin
Peace of Augsburg - a treaty that ended the religious conflict between Catholics and Lutherans within the Holy Roman Empire - a treaty that ended the religious conflict between Catholics and Lutherans within the Holy Roman Empire -
The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence directed against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion -
took place during 1585–1589, and was the eighth conflict in the series of civil wars in France known as the French Wars of Religion -
Philip II of Spain vs. Elizabeth I of England
Spanish Armada - Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. -
issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598, granted limited religious rights to French Protestants, officially ending the French Wars of Religion -
Big Europe conflict that started between the protestants and Catholics but changed into a war for power. Caused immense destruction, famine, and disease.
Defenestration of Prague - Protestant nobles in Bohemia forcibly ejected two Catholic officials from a castle window
Ended with Peace of Westphalia- treaty to end the war -
Royalists - supporters of a king, often against a revolution
Charles 1 - led English into civil war, executed for treason
Commonwealth - political community for the common good
Cromwell Burger - james 1, Charles 1, cromwell, Charles 2, James 2
Oliver Crommwell - led the Parliamentarian side to victory in the English Civil War
a series of armed conflicts between Parliamentarians and Royalists supporting King Charles I, fought over who held ultimate power -
transformed the former hunting lodge into a magnificent palace, the center of French absolute power, symbolizing his divine right and control over the nobility by requiring them to live there -
exile of King James II and the accession to the throne of William and Mary. -
constitutional monarchy - monarch serves as the symbolic head of state, with their powers limited by a constitution
Locke's two treatises on government - argues for natural rights, government by consent, and the right to revolution
Limited the monarchy's power, established Parliament's supremacy in law-making and taxation, and guaranteed key civil rights for subjects, like free speech in Parliament, fair trials, and protection from cruel punishment -
Treaty of Utrech - series of peace treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, establishing Philip V as King of Spain
War of Spanish Succession - major European conflict sparked by the death of childless King Charles II of Spain -
War of Austrian Succession - European conflict sparked by Frederick the Great of Prussia's invasion of Silesia, challenging Maria Theresa's right to inherit the Habsburg lands after Charles VI's death
Maria Theresa - ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 1740 until her death in 1780 -
Intended to change the way people think by spreading Enlightenment ideas, secular knowledge, and promoting reason, -
Fredrick the great (Prussian king 1740-1786)
Louis XV (French King 1715-1774)
Maria Theresa (Habsburg leader 1740-1780)
George III (British leader 1760-1820)
Treaty of paris - establishing British dominance by France ceding its mainland North American territories to britian
a conflict between France and Great Britain that began in 1754 as a dispute over North American land claims in the region around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania -
transformed it from a rural, agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse, marked by new machines, factory system, mechanization of textiles, rapid urbanization, and significant social shifts. -
transformed Russia into a major European power through Enlightenment-inspired reforms -
Pugachev's army attacked Samara and occupied it. -
"On the wealth of Nations" - foundational text of classical economics that explains how nations become wealthy, arguing that self-interest, free markets, and the division of labor drive prosperity
Adam Smith - Scottish philosopher and economist, considered the "father of modern economics"
America declaring independence from the British -
Louis XVI - last king before French revolution
Marie Antoinette - was wife to Louis XVI, last queen
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen - document of the French Revolution outlines universal rights like liberty, property, and security
Storming of the Bastille - political violence by revolutionary insurgents who attempted to storm and seize bastille
National Assembly - primary legislative body, responsible for making laws, representing citizens, and overseeing the government -
successful slave revolt that led to Haiti's independence from France -
Reign of Terror - violent period during the French Revolution marked by mass executions and political purges
Robespierre - French lawyer and statesman, widely recognized as one of the most influential figures of the French Revolution.
Committee of Public Safety - powerful French revolutionary government body, formed in 1793 to defend the new Republic against internal and external threats
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed -
Ends the French Revolution; begins Consulate, French government established after the Revolution's Directory, Led by Napoleon, French military genius and statesman who rose from the French Revolution to become Emperor of the French -
Crowned himself Emperor of the French at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, in a grand ceremony presided over by Pope Pius VII -
Emperor Francis II gave up under pressure from Napoleon, dissolving the thousand-year-old entity during the Napoleonic Wars -
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Napoleon was defeated by Duke of Wellington, Anglo-Irish British Army officer and statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures in Britain.
Congress of Vienna, diplomatic conference of European powers, led by Prince Metternich of the Austrian Empire, restores conservative order -
This helped reorganize Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. -
Conservative Klemens von Metternich ruling Austria after the Napoleonic Wars. Characterized by liberalism and nationalism. -
Series of reactionary and anti-liberal actions by the German Confederation by Metternich -
An armed chalvary charged into a large peaceful protest. Killing 15-20 people and injuring 400-700 more. -
Napoleon died at 51 while in exile on St Helena in the South Atlantic ocean. He supposedly died from stomach cancer -
Failed revolt by Russian nobles and military officers to try and remove czarist autocracy, abolish serfdom and reform the constitution -
Charles X overthrown after restrictive July ordinances which included voting restrictions and censorship, Lois-Phililppe becomes "Citizen King" -
France - July revolution
Belgium - violent revolution because of King Williams I's aristocrat rule, difference of religions, and economic hardship. -
Overhauled the British electoral system. It abolished 56 "rotten boroughs" and redistributed seats to industrial cities, expanding the franchise to include middle-class men -
Inspired by libera, nationalist, and socialist ideas. Most of the revolutions fail, conservative regimes restored, Metternich removed on March 31st, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish Communist Manifesto -
Conflict fought primarily on the Crimean Peninsula, where an Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Russia
First modern war with war correspondents ad photography -
Conflict where France and Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrian Empire
This helped speed up the unification of Italy -
Period of rapid, global industrialization. Advancements in steel, electric power, chemicals, and communication -
Led by Cavour (Piedmont) and Garibaldi (Redshirts)
Cavour strengthened Piedmont and then with Realpoltik he helped annexed parts of Italy and unified it
Garibaldi - used his own military to annex pieces and unify italy -
Tsar Alexander II issued the Emancipation Manifesto, abolishing serfdom for over 23 million people -
Also known as the 7 weeks war
War between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, along with their allies
Prussia easily won because of their superior technology -
Led by Otto von Bismarck, French led by Napoleon III
The war ends in German unification under Kaiser Wilhelm I, King of Prussia and leader of Germany until 1888
Otto von Bismarck - German chancellor, known for Real politik and blood and iron
Napoleon III - The first president, second emperor, and last monarch of France. -
European powers revised the territorial and political terms imposed by the Russian Empire on the Ottoman Empire -
Secret defensive military pact formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, lasted until 1915 -
Organized by Bismarck to regulate African colonization, 90% of African continent colonized. -
Major French political scandal involving the wrongful treason conviction of Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain. Falsely accused of selling military secrets to Germany, led to lots of antisemitism in France -
Bloody Sunday protests, Russian loss in Russo-Japenese Waar, Under Tsar NIcholas II, last Russian monarch before the revolution, leads to creation of Duma, the lower house of Russia’s Federal Assembly