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Johanes Guttenberg invent the printing press, which leads to more affordable print, an increase of literacy. The first book he printed was the Guttenberg Bible. -
Under the leadership of Sultan Mehmet II, the Ottoman Turks, took Constantinople, causing the end of the Byzantine Empire. Scholars took classical Greek and Roman works and traveled west across the Mediterranean -
The reigns of five monarchs: Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. This period saw significant changes, including the end of the Wars of the Roses, the English Reformation, the flourishing of art and commerce, and the development of a distinct English national identity.
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Christopher Columbus made four voyages to the Americas to find a westward sea route to Asia, though he instead landed in the Bahamas. His expeditions initiated centuries of European exploration and colonization, leading to both significant cultural exchanges and devastating consequences for Indigenous populations. -
official order by Spanish Catholic Monarchs Isabella I and Ferdinand II that forced all Jews to convert to Catholicism or leave the country under threat of death. The expulsion resulted in social and economic disruption, the loss of Jewish cultural centers, and the flight of an estimated 40,000 to over 150,000 Jews from Spain -
the fall of Granada marked the completion of the Reconquista by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella. This event ended nearly 800 years of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula, solidifying a unified Christian Spain and ushering in a new era characterized by increased religious uniformity and the initiation of Spain's Age of Exploration -
Michelangelo completed the painting of the sistine chapel ceiling after about four years of work, fulfilling a commission from Pope Julius II. This monumental work features scenes from the Book of Genesis, along with prophets and sibyls, and is considered a cornerstone of High Renaissance art. 20 years later he came back to paint the last judgment on the altar wall -
Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany, which initiated the Protestant Reformation. The 95 theses covered issues like penance, the power of the Pope, and the sale of indulgences -
Martin Luther was summoned by Emperor Charles V to answer charges of heresy(a differing belief than Orthodox). When asked to recant his writings, Luther refused unless proven wrong by Scripture or clear reason. As a result, he was declared an outlaw and heretic, though his prince's intervention prevented his immediate arrest. -
a hard headed approach to acquiring and maintaining power, saying that a ruler should prioritize state stability and security, even if it requires unethical and immoral actions like deception or cruelty, and should rely on a loyal army instead of mercenaries (a professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign army) -
The Act of Supremacy, passed by the English Parliament in 1534, declared King Henry VIII the "Supreme Head of the Church of England," effectively separating the Church of England from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. This act was a key part of the English Reformation. The Act gave Henry control over the church's appointments and finances, The Anglican church was founded primarily to get an annulment from his first wife which the Pope had refused to allow. -
The book presented the heliocentric (having or representing the sun as the center) model, which proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe and that the planets, including Earth, revolved around it. -
The Council of Trent was a key part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, meeting from 1545 to 1563 to address abuses within the Church and criticise Protestant teachings. The were the ones who decided what to keep in the church, and what to change, in order to gain people/ believers back into the church (and away from the Lutheran church).
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The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty that ended the religious conflict between Catholics and Lutherans within the Holy Roman Empire. It established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose region, his religion"), which allowed the ruler of each territory to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion for their state. -
The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre was a targeted attack and following waves of Catholic mob violence against French Protestants (Huguenots-followers of the Calvinist Reformation) that began in Paris. It was a pivotal and bloody event in the French Wars of Religion, with killing spreading to other towns and cities across France over the following weeks -
The last phase of France's religious wars between King Henry III(the current king of France), who was catholic but believed that peace was more important than a single religion in France, however he was viewed as weak. Henry, Duke of Guise, leader of the Catholic League who wanted to end Protestantism in France and keep the throne Catholic. And Henry of Navarre, leader of the Huguenots, was next in line for the throne but his Protestant faith was a problem for the mostly Catholic country.
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was a defeat of a planned Spanish invasion of England and marking a shift in naval power. The massive Spanish fleet, once considered invincible, was outmatched by the smaller, faster English ships and ultimately destroyed by a series of devastating storms. The most significant motive was Philip II's desire to end Protestant rule in England and restore Catholicism Which Elizabeth I of england had established. -
The Edict of Nantes was a law passed by King Henry IV of France. Its purpose was to bring an end to decades of brutal civil war between French Catholics and the country's Protestant minority, known as the Huguenots. It gave the Huguenots some freedoms and rights, most importantly the freedom to practice their religion in specified areas. -
Bohemian 1618-1625
-protestant nobles' revolt vs Catholic Habsburg rule(defenestration of Prague)
-catholic victory at battle of white mountain suppressed protestantism
Danish 1625-1629
-Protestant denmark, support German protestants against the Habsburg was defeated by Catholic
-edict of restitution
Swedish 1625-1629
-catholic sweden
-gustavus adolphus
-entered war to champion protestant cause
-focus: political
French 1635-1648
-Catholic France joined protestants
-Peace of Westphalia -
Royalists (supporters of Charles I) vs. Parliamentarians (led by Oliver Cromwell) fighting over power, religion, and governance.
Ends with execution of Charles I and establishment of the Commonwealth Order of the Cromwell Burger:
James I
Charles I
Oliver Cromwell
Charles II
James II -
Transformed Versailles from a hunting lodge into the opulent center of french absolute monarchy. He moved the court and government to Versailles and brought nobles, called nobles of the robe to ensure they wouldn't go against him.
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James II (Roman Catholic) replaced by William III and Mary II (Protestant monarchs invited by Parliament), establishing a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty, limited royal power from Bill of RIghts. Mary and WIlliam reflected enlightenment ideas. -
Limits the power of the monarchy; establishes constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy. Secured rights like free speech in Parliament, right to petition, no excessive bail or cruel punishments, right for protestants to bear arms. Locke’s Two Treatises on Government published- defended natural rights, social contract, and limited government. It was also against the divine rights of kings. Enlightenment ideas. -
Confirmed Philip V as king of Spain but ensured the french and Spanish crowns remained separate, as he renounced his claims to the french throne. Shifted Europe's balance of power by ceding Spanish territories to Austrian Savoy, and great Britain. -
Only female Habsburg ruler, transformed the Austrian monarchy, solidified it as a major European power through military struggles like the war of the Austrian succession and the seven years war. She implemented educational reforms, and she earned the title "mother of her people".
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Complies all human knowledge, embodied enlightenment ideas by promoting reason, empirical knowledge and critical thinking. Challenged church and state authority because it made information accessible to more people and spread ideas like science and humanism.
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Frederick the Great (Prussia), Louis XV (France), Maria Theresa, and George III (Britain), shifted the balance of power by establishing Britain as the dominant colonial power. expensive= new taxes on American colonies. Ends with the Treaty of Paris (This is NOT the Treaty of Paris from the American Revolution), granting Britain North American lands like Canada, Florida, East of Mississippi from France and Spain.
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economic and social change. Shifted from agrarian economies to mechanized, factory-based production. Lead to mass urbanization. Poor working conditions. Raise of a new industrial working class and bourgeoisie.
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Catherine the great of Russia. Seized the throne in a coup against her husband Territorial expansion, Cultural westernization under enlightenment ideals.
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peasant revolt led by Yemelyan Pugachev. A Cossack claimed to be the deposed Tsar Peter III. Fueled by serf discontentment, land hunger, and cossack autonomy loss. Failed miserably by Catherine the great. Increased noble power
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Enlightenment ideals like natural rights and individual liberty fueled the revolution. Adam Smith publishes “On the Wealth of Nations” which was an economic blueprint for freedom (free markets and self interest). -
Louis and King Louis XVI did not manage France's finances well and created severe hardship, which in part led to the beginning of the revolution.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen- universal rights like liberty, property, and security
Storming of the Bastille- Parisians revolutionaries stormed the Bastille for gunpowder and weapons, the prisoners were released.
National Assembly- a revolutionary body formed by the thirds estate. -
Successful slave revolts, led to haiti's independence from France, was the first free black republic and nation founded by former slaves. leaders were Toussaint Louverture and Jean- Jacques Dessalines.
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period where radicals like Robespierre and the committee of public safety were leading. tens of thousands of people were killed because they were suspected to be counter revolutionary. Execution of Louis XVI(January) and Marie Antoinette(October) -
Napoleon seized power in France through the Coup of 18 Brumaire, overthrows the directory and established the consulate. Ends French Revolution; begins Consulate -
Napoleon crowned emperor of the french at Notre Dame cathedral in Paris presided over by pope Pius VII. He crowned himself and empress Josephine. -
Emperor Francis II abdicated under pressure from Napoleon during the Napoleonic wars -
Was the final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, ending his reign and french dominance in Europe after his return from exile. Congress of Vienna led by Prince Metternich restores conservative (Euro definition) order