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A mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface -
The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-day siege which had begun on 6 April. -
A house of English and Welsh origin.
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Expelled all Jews and forced them to convert to catholicism.
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Christopher Columbus went to the Americas.
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King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I capture Granada. -
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet during the High Renaissance. -
Martin Luther was a German priest, theologian, author, hymn writer, professor, and former Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, and his theological beliefs form the basis of Lutheranism. The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences is a list of propositions for an academic disputation written in 1517 by Martin Luther, then a professor of moral theology at the University of Wittenberg, Germany. -
The Diet of Worms of 1521 was an imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire called by Emperor Charles V and conducted in the Imperial Free City of Worms. Martin Luther was summoned to the diet in order to renounce or reaffirm his views in response to a Papal bull of Pope Leo X -
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The Act of Supremacy, passed by the English Parliament in 1534, declared King Henry VIII the "Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England," severing the nation's ties to the Pope in Rome. This act was driven by Henry's desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which the Pope refused. By making the King the head of the Church, the act allowed him to grant the annulment himself and gave him control over both the state and the church in England. Anglican church is the main church. -
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer and mathematician who is often called the father of modern astronomy. -
A pivotal ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church held from 1545 to 1563 that served as the formal response to the Protestant Reformation
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A treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious conflict between Catholics and Lutherans within the Holy Roman Empire Recognizes "Cuius regio, eius religio" which means "whose realm, his religion" -
The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence directed against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. -
The War of the Three Henrys, also known as the Eighth War of Religion, took place during 1585–1589, and was the eighth conflict in the series of civil wars in France known as the French Wars of Religion.
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The Spanish Armada was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. -
A 1598 decree by French King Henry IV that granted Calvinist Protestants (Huguenots) significant rights in a predominantly Catholic nation. -
The Thirty Years' War, fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from the effects of battle, famine, or disease, with parts of Germany reporting population declines of over 50%.
The Defenestrations of Prague were three incidents in which people were defenestrated.
The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties signed in 1648 ending the war. -
The English Civil War or Great Rebellion was a series of civil wars and political machinations between Royalists and Parliamentarians in the Kingdom of England from 1642 to 1651.
Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads) were the two opposing sides in the English Civil Wars (1642-1651), fighting over power, religion, and the extent of the monarchy's authority.
Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland, was publicly executed on 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House. -
The Glorious Revolution was the deposition of King James II in November 1688. He was replaced by his daughter Mary II and her Dutch husband, James' nephew William III of Orange. The two ruled as joint monarchs of England, Scotland, and Ireland until Mary's death in 1694, when William became ruler in his own right.
King James II was .replaced by William III and Mary II in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution -
The English Bill of Rights (1689) was a landmark Act of Parliament that limited the monarchy's power.
The English Bill of Rights establishes a constitutional monarchy. -
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) was a series of treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession. -
Maria Theresa's 40-year reign (1740-1780) as the only female Habsburg ruler transformed the Austrian monarchy.
The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740 to 1748, was a conflict between the European great powers, fought primarily in Europe, the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Related conflicts include King George's War, the War of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. -
The Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, was a global war fought by numerous great powers, primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and the Indian subcontinent.
Frederick the Great, Louis XV, Maria Theresa, and George III were all leaders during the 7 years war.
The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). -
The Congress of Vienna was held in Vienna from 1814-1815 and brought together a myriad of European monarchs and rulers. This meant that Vienna was once the centre of international diplomatic relations. The later Austrian Chancellor Klemens Wenzel Lothar von Metternich played a vital role in this process. -
The Age of Metternich (1814–1848) refers to the period of conservative European politics dominated by Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich following the Napoleonic Wars. It was characterized by efforts to suppress liberal and nationalist movements, maintain monarchical stability, and uphold the balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna.
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The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of strict reactionary, anti-liberal, and anti-nationalist restrictions passed on September 20, 1819, by the German Confederation, heavily influenced by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich. -
The Peterloo Massacre took place at St Peter's Field, Manchester, England, on Monday 16 August 1819. Eighteen people were killed and 400–700 were injured when the cavalry of the Yeomen charged into a crowd of around 60,000 people who had gathered to demand the reform of parliamentary representation -
He was exiled by the British to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821, at age 51, likely from advanced stomach cancer -
The Decembrist Revolt was a failed, armed uprising on December 26, 1825 (Dec. 14 O.S.), in St. Petersburg, led by liberal Russian noble officers seeking to abolish serfdom and establish a constitution. -
The July Revolution in France (July 27–29, 1830), also known as Les Trois Glorieuses ("The Three Glorious Days"), was a popular uprising that overthrew King Charles X of the Bourbon dynasty. -
The Representation of the People Act 1832, or "Great Reform Act," received Royal Assent on June 7, 1832, to overhaul the British electoral system. It abolished 56 "rotten boroughs," redistributed seats to industrial cities, and expanded voting rights to middle-class male property holders, aiming to prevent revolution, increase representation, and modernize the political system. -
The revolutions of 1848, also known as the springtime of the peoples were a series of revolutions throughout Europe that spanned almost two years, between January 1848 and October 1849. They remain the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date. -
The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont from October 1853 to February 1856.
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The Second Italian War of Independence, also called the Sardinian War, the Austro-Sardinian War, the Franco-Austrian War, or the Italian War of 1859, was fought by the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia against the Austrian Empire in 1859 and played a crucial part in the process of Italian Unification. -
The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardization, mass production and industrialization from the late 19th century into the early 20th century.
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Individuals who played a major part in the struggle for unification and liberation from foreign domination included King Victor Emmanuel II; politician, economist and statesman Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour; general Giuseppe Garibaldi; and journalist and politician Giuseppe Mazzini. Alexander II is also known as Alexander the Liberator because of his historic Edict of Emancipation, which officially abolished Russian serfdom in 1861. -
The Austro-Prussian War or German War of Brothers was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation. -
The Austro-Prussian War or German War of Brothers was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation.
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At the Congress of Berlin, the major European powers revised the territorial and political terms imposed by the Russian Empire on the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of San Stefano, which had ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. -
The Triple Alliance was a mutual defense agreement formed on May 20, 1882, between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, binding them to support each other against potential attacks, primarily targeting France and Russia. -
The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was a meeting of colonial powers that concluded with the signing of the General Act of Berlin, an agreement regulating European colonisation and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period. Led by Bismarck.
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The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. -
The Russian Revolution of 1905, also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a revolution in the Russian Empire which began on 22 January 1905 and led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under the Russian Constitution of 1906, the country's first formal constitution. -
The Triple Entente was a 20th-century alliance between France, Britain, and Russia, serving as a critical counterbalance to the Triple Alliance -
The Bosnian Crisis, also known as the Annexation Crisis or the First Balkan Crisis, erupted on 5 October 1908 when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formerly within the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire but under Austro-Hungarian administration since 1878. -
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913.
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On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia, by 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serbian nationalist group The Black Hand.