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Beginning of the Estates-General
The Estates-General was convened by King Louis XVI to address France's financial crisis. It eventually led to the formation of the National Assembly and the start of the French Revolution. -
Storming of the Bastille
A pivotal event in the French Revolution, when revolutionary crowds stormed the Bastille prison in Paris, symbolizing the end of royal tyranny and sparking widespread revolt. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
A fundamental document of the French Revolution, proclaiming the rights and freedoms of citizens, including liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. -
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Citizen
Written by Olympe de Gouges, this declaration sought to extend the principles of the 1789 declaration to women, advocating for gender equality and women’s rights. -
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The Terror
A period during the French Revolution marked by mass executions, political purges, and a government-led campaign to protect the revolution from its enemies, largely led by Maximilien Robespierre. -
Execution of Louis XVI
King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine after being found guilty of treason. This event marked the end of the monarchy in France and solidified the revolution. -
Coup d'État of Thermidor
The fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was arrested and executed, signaling a shift in the revolutionary government towards a more moderate direction. -
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The Directory
A five-member executive body that governed France after the fall of Robespierre. The period was marked by political instability, corruption, and military conflict. -
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The Consulate
After the Coup of Brumaire, Napoleon became First Consul of France, effectively holding dictatorial power. It marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleon’s rule. -
Coup d'État of Brumaire
Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup, overthrowing the French Directory and establishing the Consulate, marking the beginning of his rise to dictatorship. -
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The Empire
The period when Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France and expanded his empire across Europe, leading to significant military and political changes. -
Battle of Austerlitz
One of Napoleon's most significant victories, where his forces decisively defeated the Russian and Austrian armies, cementing his dominance over Europe for a time. -
Exile in Elba
After his abdication following his defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, off the coast of Italy. -
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Congress of Vienna
European powers met to redraw the continent’s political map after Napoleon’s defeat, aiming to restore monarchies and balance power. -
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Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored Bourbon monarch after Napoleon; ruled with a constitutional charter granting limited freedoms. -
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Exile in St. Helena
After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he spent the final years of his life. -
Battle of Waterloo
The decisive battle where Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the British and Prussian forces, leading to his final abdication and end of the Napoleonic Wars. -
Death of Napoleon
Napoleon died in exile on St. Helena, likely from stomach cancer. His death marked the end of an era in European history. -
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Charles X, King of France
Conservative successor of Louis XVIII; overthrown in the July Revolution due to his absolutist policies. -
Independence of Greece
Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire after a long war, supported by Britain, France, and Russia. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands due to cultural and political differences. -
The Zollverein
A German customs union that promoted economic unity and helped pave the way for political unification. -
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Louis Philippe, King of France
Known as the “Citizen King,” he came to power after the July Revolution but was later deposed during the 1848 uprisings. -
Revolution of 1848 / Spring of Nations
A wave of liberal and nationalist revolutions swept through Europe, challenging conservative regimes. -
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France’s Second Republic
Established after the 1848 revolution; it introduced universal male suffrage but was short-lived. -
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France’s Second Empire: Napoleon III
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, became Emperor and led major modernization efforts, but fell after the Franco-Prussian War. -
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Spanish Liberal Biennium
A two-year period of liberal rule in Spain marked by progressive reforms and political instability. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Fought during the Second Italian War of Independence; Franco-Sardinian victory over Austria aided Italian unification. -
Garibaldi Conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
A major step in Italian unification, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his "Redshirts." -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy
Proclaimed the first king of a united Italy, symbolizing the success of the Risorgimento. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and took control of Schleswig and Holstein. -
Austrian-Prussian War
Also called the Seven Weeks' War; Prussia defeated Austria, leading to the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. -
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Franco-Prussian War
Prussia defeated France, leading to German unification and the fall of Napoleon III. -
Wilhelm I, Kaiser of the Second German Reich
Proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, marking the birth of the German Empire.