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Brother of Louis XVI. Restored as monarch after Napoleon. Ruled under a constitutional monarchy with moderate policies. -
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A brief period when King Ferdinand VII was forced to accept the liberal Constitution of 1812. Ended by French intervention.
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known as the “Citizen King.” Took power after the 1830 revolution. His liberal monarchy ended in the 1848 revolution. -
Belgium broke away from the Netherlands after a nationalist revolution. Gained support from France and Britain.
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A customs union led by Prussia among German states (excluding Austria). Important step toward German unification. -
Succeeded Louis XVIII. Tried to restore absolutism, leading to the July Revolution of 1830. -
A wave of revolutionary movements across Europe demanding democracy, national unity, and social reforms. Most were suppressed but influenced future reforms.
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Louis-Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. Authoritarian at first, later adopted more liberal policies. Fell after war with Prussia.
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Key victories for France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Austria in northern Italy. Crucial to Italian unification. Inspired the creation of the Red Cross.
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Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi led a successful campaign in southern Italy and handed control to Victor Emmanuel II.
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Proclaimed the first king of a unified Italy. Formerly king of Sardinia-Piedmont. -
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark to gain control of Schleswig and Holstein.
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Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs. Paved the way for German unification under Prussian leadership. -
Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs. Paved the way for German unification under Prussian leadership.
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The German Empire was officially established in Versailles. Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, became the first emperor (Kaiser) of unified Germany. -
Tsar Nicholas II promises civil liberties and a Duma.
These reforms aim to calm revolutionary unrest. -
Peaceful protesters are shot by troops in St. Petersburg.
The massacre sparks widespread unrest across Russia. -
Sailors revolt against brutal conditions and officers.
The mutiny becomes a symbol of revolutionary resistance. -
Germany enters World War I to support Austria-Hungary.
Russia mobilizes its massive army for war. -
The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne is assassinated in Sarajevo.
This event triggers a chain reaction leading to World War I. -
Austria-Hungary blames Serbia for the assassination.
The conflict quickly expands into a global war. -
Strikes and protests erupt in Petrograd over food shortages.
Army mutinies help topple the Tsarist regime. -
Nicholas II steps down, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule.
A Provisional Government takes control. -
Lenin arrives in Petrograd with radical ideas.
He promotes the slogan “Peace, Land, Bread.” -
Bolshevik forces seize key government buildings.
This marks the success of the October Revolution. -
The Congress approves Bolshevik control of government.
Lenin forms a new socialist state. -
The armistice ended fighting in World War I.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was later annulled. -
The Bolsheviks negotiate a ceasefire in World War I.
Russia seeks peace to focus on internal issues. -
Czech forces rebel along the Trans-Siberian Railway.
The uprising ignites the Russian Civil War. -
Red Army fights Whites, Greens, and nationalist forces.
The war devastates Russia but secures Bolshevik victory. -
Russia officially exits World War I.
The treaty costs Russia significant territory. -
Lenin launched the NEP to revive the economy after war and famine.
Limited capitalism was allowed to stabilize the country. -
The Soviet Union was officially established.
This consolidated Bolshevik control over former imperial territories. -
Lenin died after years of illness.
His death led to a power struggle between Stalin and Trotsky.