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Instruments made of bone -
In prehistoric times, music was mainly rhythmic and based on percussion, without complex melodies or harmony. It originated as an imitation of the sounds of nature and had a magical and religious function, as it was used in rituals related to hunting, fertility, etc. It was monodic, meaning it had a single melodic line, and was transmitted orally. The first instruments made were bone flutes, stones called lithophones, horns, skin drums and rattles, which created atmospheres (Caves of Lascaux).
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Seikilos Epitaph -
Engraving of music in Ancient Greece -
In ancient Greece, music played a central role in social life, education, theatre and religion. It was organised into musical modes, each with its own emotional character. It was mainly monodic, with simple accompaniments, and was closely related to mathematics thanks to the studies of Pythagoras. The most commonly used instruments were the lyre, the zither, the aulos and the syrinx, which accompanied tragedies, religious ceremonies, banquets and competitions.
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Music was more practical than theoretical and was used in military parades, public celebrations, circus shows and religious rites. Its purpose was to exalt imperial glory, enliven gladiatorial combat, or accompany festive processions. Although the Romans were greatly influenced by the Greeks, they developed their own style marked by strength and spectacle. One of the best-known composers was Mesomedes. The most popular instruments were the double tibia, cornu, bronze tuba, zither, and lyre.
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Music was dominated by the Church, which used Gregorian chant as a form of prayer. This monodic, free-rhythm chant accompanied religious ceremonies in Latin. Over time, polyphony emerged, combining several voices at once. At the same time, secular music was born in villages/ castles, in Romance languages, created by troubadours and minstrels. Hildegard von Bingen, Léonin, Pérotin and William IX stood out. The most commonly used instruments were the rebec, harp, organ, shawm and tambourine.
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Music achieved balance, harmony and beauty inspired by humanism. Polyphony became more complex and orderly, with voices seeking clarity and perfection. Both religious and secular music was composed, with a predominance of a cappella works. Thanks to the printing press, sheet music spread throughout Europe. The main composers were Josquin des Prez, Palestrina, and Tomás Luis de Victoria. The instruments included the vihuela, viola da gamba, harpsichord, sackbut, and cornetto.
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It was characterised by its expressiveness and taste for contrasting emotions. Tonality became established and basso continuo appeared as a harmonic foundation. Composers sought to impress listeners with surprise effects, embellishments and drama. New genres such as opera, cantata, concerto and suite were born, all of them full of ornamentation. Monteverdi, Vivaldi, Bach and Handel stood out. The instruments were the violin, harpsichord, oboe, transverse flute and theorbo.
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The music was more balanced and luminous. Forms such as the sonata, symphony and concerto were organised, and homophony predominated, in which a main melody was accompanied by simple chords. It was orderly and clear music, influenced by the Enlightenment. Haydn, Mozart and Boccherini stood out. The most commonly used instruments were the fortepiano, clarinet and English horn. Music began to be performed for a bourgeois audience in theatres and concert halls.
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In Romanticism, music became the purest expression of feelings. Composers sought to communicate their emotions, from love to suffering, rebellion, or nostalgia. Orchestras grew in size and power, harmonies became more expressive, and the leitmotif emerged, a theme that identified a character or idea. Among the great names of the period were Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner, and Tchaikovsky. The piano became the leading instrument, and new ones appeared, such as the tuba and saxophone.
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Music sought to evoke sensations and atmospheres. Soft harmonies, ancient or exotic scales, and orchestral colours that evoked nature, water, or light were used. Composers drew inspiration from painting and symbolist poetry to create delicate, diffuse music. Debussy, Ravel, and Satie stood out, exploring new sounds with instruments such as the celesta, chromatic harp, and glockenspiel.
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Contemporary music is highly diverse and characterised by freedom and innovation. Some composers explored atonality and serialism, breaking with the traditional rules of tonality, while others experimented with randomness or electronics. Movements such as minimalism and the fusion of styles such as jazz and rock also emerged. Stravinsky, Schoenberg and Cage stand out. Thanks to technological advances, music has become globalised and modernised, taking on infinite forms and styles.