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Jean Piaget’s theory (published in 1920s-1930s) outlines four stages of cognitive development, where children progress from learning through senses and symbols to logical reasoning. By adolescence, they reach the formal operational stage, enabling abstract and hypothetical thinking. McLeod, S. (2025, June 4). Piaget cognitive stages of development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
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Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development (1920s-1930s) emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in learning. His idea was the Zone of Proximal Development, what a child can do with guidance and scaffolding, where adults or peers support learning until the child can perform independently.
Explore Psychology. (2024, March 15). Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory - Explore Psychology. Explore Psychology. https://www.explorepsychology.com/vygotsky-social-development-theory/ -
The First-Grade Studies (1964–1967) tested different methods of teaching beginning reading. They showed no single method was superior, as both phonics and meaning-based approaches worked when taught well. The studies highlighted that teacher quality and instruction mattered more than the program used Sutori. (n.d.). Www.sutori.com. https://www.sutori.com/en/story/history-of-literacy-instruction-timeline--RNQBSeSQzc87fbSqeEgukqFZ
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The 1988 California Reading Framework emphasized a whole language approach, focusing on literature, comprehension, and student engagement with authentic texts rather than isolated skills. It downplayed systematic phonics instruction. Instead, it promoted reading as connected to writing, speaking, and listening.
All Curriculum Frameworks - Curriculum Frameworks Instructional Materials (CA Dept of Education). (2014). Ca.gov. https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/allfwks.asp -
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), passed in 2001, required states to set academic standards, test students regularly, and hold schools accountable for performance. Its main goal was to close achievement gaps, but it faced criticism for overemphasizing standardized testing. Laws for Preschool to Grade 12 Education. (2024). U.S. Department of Education. https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/laws-preschool-grade-12-education
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The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), passed in 2015, replaced No Child Left Behind. It gives states more control over setting education standards and accountability while still requiring testing and support for struggling schools. Its main goal is to ensure equity and achievement for all students. Laws for Preschool to Grade 12 Education. (2024). U.S. Department of Education. https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/laws-preschool-grade-12-education