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Milestones:
During infancy, rapid physical growth occurs, including brain development, motor skills, and sensory abilities. Infants progress from reflexive,simple actions to crawling and walking. Cognitively, they learn through sensory exploration and develop object permanence through direct interaction with their environment. Emotionally, infants form strong attachments to caregivers and begin regulating emotions through consistent, responsive care. -
Challenges and Resolutions
The main challenge of infancy is trust vs. mistrust. Infants depend entirely on caregivers to meet basic needs, they are unable to advocate/do things for themselves. When care is consistent, nurturing, and responsive, infants develop trust and a sense of safety, which is incredibly important. If needs are unmet or inconsistent, mistrust may form, impacting future relationships and emotional development. -
Major Theories:
Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky:
At this time age, Piaget’s sensorimotor stage explains how infants learn through movement, senses, and the direct interaction with their environment. Erikson’s trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the importance of reliable caregiving to build security. Finally, Vygotsky theories highlight social interaction, noting that caregivers guide learning through language, routines, and shared experiences that shape early cognitive development. -
THE DREADFUL AGE:
2. YEARS. OLD. The “terrible twos” describe a stage in toddlerhood when children assert independence but lack full language and self-regulation skills. Toddlers may show frequent tantrums, frustration, and defiance as they try to communicate needs and make choices. This behavior reflects normal cognitive and emotional development, especially autonomy versus shame and doubt, and is best managed with patience, consistency, and supportive guidance. -
Milestones:
Toddlers gain improved coordination, balance, and fine motor skills. Language develops rapidly, supporting symbolic thinking and early problem-solving. Emotionally, toddlers seek independence, express strong emotions, and develop self-awareness. Social interactions increase, but limited emotional regulation often results in tantrums as toddlers struggle to communicate needs and manage frustration. -
Major Theories:
Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky: At this time in their lives, Piaget places toddlers in the late sensorimotor to early preoperational stage, where mental representations and pretend play emerge. Erikson’s autonomy vs. shame and doubt focuses on independence and self-control. Vygotsky emphasizes scaffolding, as adults support learning through guided encouragement, language modeling, and participation. -
Challenges and Resolutions
The key challenge is autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Toddlers want control over their actions but lack full skills. Encouraging independence while setting safe limits helps toddlers build confidence without risking danger or injury. Excessive restriction or criticism can lead to shame and self-doubt, reducing motivation, curiosity, and willingness to try new tasks. -
Case Study: Chapter 6 - Page 2
Harrison’s behavior reflects the toddler stage, when self-regulation and autonomy are still developing. According to Erikson’s autonomy vs. shame/doubt, stress and lack of sleep led to loss of control and aggression. Attachment theory explains his need for closeness to feel safe. Rena’s calm support and choices acted as Vygotskyan scaffolding, helping Harrison regulate emotions and successfully adapt to the routine. -
Milestones:
During early childhood, children gain better coordination, balance, and fine motor precision. In the cognitive front, imagination expands, language becomes more complex, and symbolic play dominates thinking. Emotionally, children learn to label feelings, develop friendships, and begin understanding empathy. Social skills improve as children learn to cooperate, follow rules, and participate in group activities, all of which were difficult at younger ages. -
Major Theories:
Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky:
Piaget’s preoperational stage explains children’s use of symbols and imaginative thinking, despite limited logical reasoning. Erikson’s initiative vs. guilt focuses on children’s desire to take initiative through play and goal-directed behavior. Vygotsky stresses that learning occurs through social interaction, language, and collaboration with more knowledgeable peers and adults. -
Challenges and Resolutions
The main challenge is initiative vs. guilt. Children experiment with roles, ideas, and activities as they explore their abilities and test to see what they can accomplish. When supported and encouraged, they develop confidence, leadership, and creativity. If criticized or discouraged too often, guilt may develop, which can lead to fear of failure and reduced willingness to try new tasks. -
Case study: Chapter 7 - Page 2
Gloria’s experiences align with early childhood (initiative vs. guilt) in Erikson’s theory. Her desire to stay a child reflects anxiety about adult responsibilities and a need for security. Attachment and ecological theories help explain how race, family structure, and social context shaped her identity. Piaget’s preoperational stage is evident in her child-centered thinking, imagination, and focus on play as a safe way to understand the world. -
Milestones:
Growth becomes steadier during middle childhood, with increased strength and coordination. Cognitively, children develop logical thinking, conservation skills, classification or object, and improved academic abilities. Emotionally, peer approval becomes incredibly important, and self-esteem is closely tied to achievement. Children gain better emotional regulation and a deeper understanding of social rules, fairness, and responsibility. -
Major Theories:
Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky:
Piaget’s concrete operational stage explains children’s ability to reason logically about real situations, which it vital for both problem solving and education. Erikson’s industry vs. inferiority emphasizes productivity and mastery of skills, but also the influence of self-esteem. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development shows how learning is enhanced through guidance, collaboration, and feedback from teachers, parents, and peers. -
Challenges and Resolutions
The central challenge at this age is industry vs. inferiority. Children compare their abilities to others and seek competence in school, sports, and social roles. Positive feedback and opportunities for success build confidence and motivation. Repeated failure or lack of support can lead to feelings of inferiority, low self-esteem, and avoidance of challenges which can prevent individuals from continuing to peruse certain activities.