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The first school museum opened in St. Louis, marking the start of using museums for instructional media.
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The term “visual education” appeared with Keystone View Company’s teacher’s guide to slides and stereographs
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The first U.S. catalog of instructional films published; Rochester, NY became the first school system to adopt films for regular instruction.
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Thomas Edison predicted films would replace books in schools within ten years.
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The visual instruction movement expanded, with national organizations, journals, and training programs founded.
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The audiovisual instruction movement emerged with advances in radio, sound recordings, and sound films.
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Three national visual instruction organizations merged into the Department of Visual Instruction (DVI), later known as AECT.
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Publication of Visualizing the Curriculum, a key textbook that influenced audiovisual education.
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Psychologists and educators (e.g., Gagné, Briggs, Flanagan) developed training materials and testing methods for the U.S. military, laying the foundation for instructional design
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Organizations like the American Institutes for Research advanced task analysis and system-based training approaches, exemplified by Robert B. Miller’s work
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Massive use of audiovisual media for military and civilian training; U.S. Army Air Force produced 400+ training films and 600 filmstrips.
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Renewed school interest in audiovisual devices and the rise of media research (e.g., Lumsdaine’s studies).
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Ford Foundation invested over $170 million in educational television projects.
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Early computer-assisted instruction (CAI) projects such as PLATO and TICCIT developed but had little school impact.
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The U.S. FCC reserved 242 television channels for education, boosting instructional television.
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B.F. Skinner’s publications introduced programmed instruction, emphasizing small steps, immediate feedback, and self-pacing—core elements of systematic instructional design
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Sputnik’s launch triggered U.S. investment in science education. Failures of early materials led Michael Scriven (1967) to propose formative vs. summative evaluation
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Gagné, Glaser, Silvern, Banathy, and others integrated task analysis, objectives, and testing into the first systematic instructional design models
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Robert Mager’s Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction (1962) sold over 1.5 million copies, making behavioral objectives central to instructional planning
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Robert Glaser coined “criterion-referenced measures,” shifting testing from norm-based comparisons to mastery of specific skills—key for instructional design
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Ford Foundation shifted focus away from instructional TV; many school projects ended.
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Robert Gagné introduced five learning domains, nine instructional events, and hierarchical task analysis, which became cornerstones of instructional design models
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The Carnegie Commission reported that instructional television had little effect on education.
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Visual Communication Media
Television
Emerging Theories and Adaptation -
Terminology shifted from “audiovisual instruction” to educational technology or instructional technology; DVI became AECT.
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Over 40 models emerged (e.g., Dick Carey, Kemp, Gagné Briggs). Adoption spread across military, academia, industry, and internationally
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While impact on schools was limited, cognitive psychology gained influence, and microcomputers transformed instructional design into computer-based learning
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New Media
Determining the Role of Technology in
Education
Applying Technology Through Behaviorism
and Cognitivism
Naturalism Versus Rationalism -
Microcomputers entered schools; by 1983, 40% of elementary and 75% of secondary schools used them.
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Seymour Papert predicted computers would radically change education.
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The field broadened with performance technology, constructivist principles, electronic performance support systems, rapid prototyping, Internet-based distance learning, and knowledge management
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U.S. schools had on average one computer per nine students, but computers had minimal impact on instruction.
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Rapid rise of the Internet and digital technology in education, business, and the military; distance learning nearly doubled in higher education between 1994–1998; U.S. Army invested $600 million in Internet-based distance education.
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Survey showed one computer per six students in U.S. schools and 90% of schools connected to the Internet.
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E-Learning
Blended Learning
Mobile Learning, Gamification, and Facebook
Pedagogy -
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Mobile Devices in Learning
Social Media
Understanding Teacher Attitudes
Gamification
Flipped Classrooms
MOOCs
Augmented and Virtual Reality -
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