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The Italian city-states see great growth in commercial and financial development as well as expanding populations and self-government. For example, Florence became wealthy through banking. These conditions allowed for the growth of an artistic culture and for the Renaissance to start.
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The city of Venice grows exceptionally wealthy due to a well-developed merchant marine. This also allowed for the growth of artistic culture because the wealthy were able to purchase paintings.
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The popolo’s attempt to create republican governments in Italy fail. By this date, almost every major Italian city is controlled by the signori (despots) or oligarchs (merchant aristocrats).
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Clocks are installed in cities throughout Europe. They allow time to be measured so city workers can be accurately paid. It is also significant because it developed the mentality that the universe could be measured in quanitative terms.
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King Edward III of England repudiated the English debt. The event caused many Florentine banks that had loaned the king money to go bankrupt.
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The event demonstrates that religious tolerance was nearly non-existant in France. It also highlights the high level of anti-semitism in the country.
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African slaves start to be shipped to the Western Mediterranean. By 1530, over four thousand slaves were brought to Europe annually. These slaves were used as maids, valets and domestic servants.
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The Florentine government sets up a special magistrate to eliminate sodomy (homosexual acts). This is significant because it demonstrates how widespread homosexual acts were in Florence.
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Charles VII of France published the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, which gave the French crown control over the church and allowed the king to appoint bishops. This is significant because it gave the king power over the pope.
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In On the False Donation of Constantine, Lorenza Valla proved that an 8th century document that supposedly gave the Vatican control over vast territory in Western Europe was actually a forgery.This demonstrates the growth of skepticism during the time period.
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The War of the Roses was fought between the Houses of Lancaster and York in England for control of the crown. The war damaged agriculture and the economy of England.
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Venice goes to war against Milan to protest Francesco Sforza’s acquisition of the title of Duke of Milan. Florence, at one point an ally of Venice, sided with Milan. This demonstrates the efforts to maintain the balance of power in Italy.
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The war between Venice and Milan ends. Venice received territory in return for recognizing Sforza’s claim.
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Movable type was invented by Gutenberg, Fust and Schoffer. Movable type allowed type to be rearranged to create an infinite number of works. This is significant because it allowed the mass production of books that would spread ideas such as Protestantism and liberalism.
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The Gutenberg Bible is published. This is one of the first mass-produced bibles in human history. It demonstrates the power of movable type.
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This marriage serves to combine the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. They would go on to help centralize Spain.
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Pope Sixtus IV authorizes the Inquisition after it is requested by Ferdinand. This demonstrates Ferdinand's willingness to prosecute the conversos.
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Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the creation of tribunals to punish conversos who still followed the Jewish faith. This demonstrates that their efforts to centralize the Spanish state included enforcing a central religion.
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The old St. Paul’s Basilica was torn down by Pope Julius II. In its place, a new cathedral was constructed. Michelangelo would paint the interior of the basilica’s dome. This demonstrates that the Renaissance effected the Vatican.
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Charles VII of France invaded Italy. The states of Florence, Rome and Naples put up very little resistance. As a result, Italy became the focus of foreign ambition and armies.
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The Hermandades, originally created to preserve order in a faction filled Spain and to prevent aristocrats from warring, had been given the power to act as local police and justice tribunals. They were so effective that they were disbanded in 1498. This demonstrates an effort of Spain to maintain a centralized government.
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The High Renaissance occurs. The main characteristics of Renaissance art, such as classical balance, harmony and restraint, where best demonstrated by artists such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.
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In The Education of a Christian Prince, Erasmus argues that a ruler’s character should be formed through the study of ancient philosophers. This demonstrates the increased value of education during the time period.
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This demonstrates that Italy was increasingly controlled by other European nations.
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Machiavelli publishes The Prince. The book argues that leaders should do everything always attempt to increase their power. In addition, he advised that it was better for a leader to be feared than loved. Many European rulers used the techniques in this book to maintain power.
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Thomas More wrote Utopia. In the book, he argued for a society where precious metals were worthless and people were improved through social institutions. His book was radical because it argued that people were not innately evil.
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The Habsburg-Valois War, fought between the Valois family of France and the German Habsburg family, starts. The war is often fought in Italy. The war demonstrates that Italy was often controlled by outside nations.
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Imperial forces under Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire sack the city of Rome and capture Pope Clement VII. This is significant because it officially ended the Renaissance.
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The Courier is written by Castiglione. The book argued that a proper gentleman should have a background in in many academic subjects and be strong in spiritual and physical aspects.