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BEGINNING OF THE ESTATES GENERAL
King Louis XVI convened the Estates General to address France's financial crisis, leading to revolutionary developments. -
STORMING OF THE BASTILLE
Parisians stormed the Bastille prison, symbolizing the uprising against royal authority. -
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND THE CITIZEN
The National Assembly adopted this foundational document outlining individual rights and liberties. -
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN AND THE CITIZEN
Olympe de Gouges published this work advocating for women's rights and gender equality. -
EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVITH
King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine, marking a pivotal moment in the revolution. -
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THE TERROR
A period of political purges and executions aimed at suppressing counter-revolutionary elements. -
COUP DÉTAT OF THERMIDOR
A political coup that led to the fall of Robespierre and the end of the Reign of Terror. -
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THE DIRECTORY
A five-member committee that governed France, preceding Napoleon's rise to power. -
BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ
A decisive victory for Napoleon against Russian and Austrian forces. -
COUP DÉTAT OF BRUMAIRE
Napoleon Bonaparte seized power, overthrowing the Directory and establishing the Consulate. -
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THE CONSULATE
The government established after the Brumaire coup, with Napoleon as First Consul. -
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THE EMPIRE
Napoleon declared himself Emperor, establishing the First French Empire. -
CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Date: September 1814 – June 1815 European powers convened to restore balance after Napoleon's defeat, redrawing the continent's political map. -
LOUIS XVIII, KING OF FRANCE
Reign: 1814 – 1824 Restored the Bourbon monarchy after Napoleon's fall, ruling until his death. -
EXILE IN ELBA
Following his abdication, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba. -
BATTLE OF WATERLOO
Napoleon's final military defeat, leading to his second abdication. -
EXILE IN ST. HELENA
After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St. Helena. -
SPANISH LIBERAL BIENNIUM
Date: 1820 – 1823 A liberal uprising in Spain led to a constitutional government before being suppressed by French intervention. -
INDEPENCE OF GREECE
Date: 1821 – 1830 Greek revolutionaries fought against Ottoman rule, achieving independence with support from Britain, France, and Russia. -
DEATH OF NAPOLEON
Napoleon died in exile on St. Helena. -
CHARLES X, KING OF FRANCE
Reign: 1824 – 1830 His conservative policies led to the July Revolution and his subsequent abdication. -
INDEPENDENCE OF BELGIUM
Belgium declared independence from the Netherlands, later recognized by European powers. -
LOUIS PHILIPPE
Reign: 1830 – 1848 Known as the "Citizen King," his reign ended with the 1848 revolution. -
THE ZOLLVEREIN
A customs union that facilitated economic unity among German states, paving the way for political unification. -
FRENCH SECOND REPUBLIC
Date: 1848 – 1852 Established after the February Revolution, it ended with Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup. -
REVOLUTION OF 1848 (SPRING OF NATIONS)
A series of political upheavals across Europe advocating for liberal reforms and national independence. -
FRANCE'S SECOND EMPIRE: NAPOLEON III
Date: 1852 – 1870 Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor, leading France until the Franco-Prussian War. -
BATTLES OF MAGENTA AND SOLFERINO
Dates: June 4 and June 24, 1859 Key victories for France and Sardinia against Austria during the Second Italian War of Independence. -
GARIBALDI CONQUERS THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES
Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand led to the unification of southern Italy with the north. -
VICTOR EMMANUEL II, KING OF ITALY
Proclaimed the first king of a unified Italy, symbolizing the culmination of the Risorgimento. -
DANISH-PRUSSIAN WAR
Conflict over Schleswig and Holstein, resulting in Prussian and Austrian victory over Denmark. -
AUSTRIAN-PRUSSIAN WAR
Prussia defeated Austria, leading to the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. -
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR
Date: 1870 – 1871 Prussia's victory led to the fall of the French Second Empire and the unification of Germany. -
WILHEM I, KAISER OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE
Proclaimed the first Emperor of a unified Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.