-
The Storming of the Bastille marked the start of the French Revolution. The people of Paris attacked the prison-fortress, a symbol of royal tyranny, in search of weapons and ammunition. -
This document declared freedom, equality, and universal rights for all men, becoming a cornerstone of human rights and the French Revolution. -
King Louis XVI called the Estates General, a meeting of representatives from the three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners), to address France's financial crisis. This event led to the rise of the Third Estate. -
Written by Olympe de Gouges, this document demanded equal rights for women, challenging the male-focused Declaration of 1789. -
King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine after being convicted of treason during the French Revolution.
-
A period of extreme violence during the French Revolution, led by Robespierre, where thousands were executed as "enemies of the revolution."
-
This coup overthrew Robespierre, ending the Reign of Terror and leading to a more moderate phase of the French Revolution. -
A five-member committee governed France during this unstable period, marked by corruption and challenges.
-
Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup to overthrow the Directory, marking the end of the French Revolution and beginning the Consulate period. -
A new form of government established by Napoleon, where he was the First Consul, consolidating his power.
-
Napoleon declared himself Emperor, expanding French territory and implementing reforms before his first abdication.
-
One of Napoleon's greatest victories, where he defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies. -
Brother of Louis XVI; restored the Bourbon monarchy after Napoleon's fall. He ruled as a constitutional monarch during a period of political tension.
-
A diplomatic meeting after Napoleon's defeat aiming to restore European monarchies and balance of power; it redrew the map of Europe and established the Concert of Europe.
-
Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba after his defeat in 1814, but he escaped to reclaim power for 100 days.
-
A German customs union initiated by Prussia to promote economic unity among the German states and exclude Austria. It laid the groundwork for German unification.
-
The final battle where Napoleon was defeated by British and Prussian forces, ending his rule as Emperor. -
After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St. Helena, where he lived until his death.
-
A brief liberal period in Spain where a constitutional monarchy was restored. Ended by French intervention restoring absolutism under Ferdinand VII.
-
Greece fought a war of independence against the Ottoman Empire, with eventual support from Britain, France, and Russia. Recognized as an independent state in 1830.
-
Napoleon died in exile on St. Helena, possibly from stomach cancer or poisoning, marking the end of an era.
-
Last Bourbon king of France, he attempted to restore absolute monarchy, leading to the July Revolution and his abdication.
-
Belgium declared independence from the Netherlands after the Belgian Revolution and became a neutral, constitutional monarchy. -
Known as the "Citizen King," he came to power after the July Revolution. His reign ended with the 1848 revolution due to growing discontent.
-
A wave of liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe demanding constitutional reforms, national unification, and workers’ rights. Mostly suppressed but set long-term changes in motion. -
Established after the fall of Louis Philippe. It introduced universal male suffrage and ended with the rise of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte.
-
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III, modernized France, and engaged in several foreign wars. He was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War.
-
Key battles in the Second Italian War of Independence. French and Sardinian forces defeated Austria, advancing Italian unification. -
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the "Expedition of the Thousand" and successfully unified southern Italy under the Sardinian crown. -
Proclaimed King of a united Italy (excluding Rome and Venetia at the time), he became the first monarch of modern Italy. -
Fought over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, increasing Prussian influence in German affairs. -
Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs, leading to the creation of the North German Confederation. -
Conflict between France and Prussia. Prussian victory led to the collapse of the Second French Empire and the unification of Germany.
-
After the victory in the Franco-Prussian War, Wilhelm I was crowned Emperor in Versailles, marking the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. -
Facing massive strikes, Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, promising civil liberties and an elected Duma (parliament). While it eased unrest, the Tsar retained real power. -
Peaceful workers led by Father Gapon marched to the Winter Palace to petition the Tsar for reforms. Soldiers opened fire, killing hundreds, shattering trust in the Tsar and igniting the 1905 Revolution. -
Sailors revolted over brutal discipline and rotten food. Though the mutiny failed, it became a powerful symbol of resistance against Tsarist oppression. -
Germany declared war on Russia due to Russia’s support for Serbia. This escalated the conflict further, pulling major European powers into the war. -
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia, and a web of alliances turned this regional crisis into World War I. -
After issuing an ultimatum Serbia could not fully accept, Austria-Hungary declared war. This marked the official start of World War I as alliances rapidly mobilized across Europe. -
Food shortages, inflation, and war exhaustion sparked strikes in Petrograd. Soldiers joined protesters, leading to the collapse of Tsarist authority. -
Nicholas II abdicated after losing military and political support, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule. A Provisional Government took control. -
The Bolsheviks negotiated a ceasefire with Germany and its allies to fulfill their promise of peace and focus on consolidating power at home. -
The Congress officially approved Bolshevik rule and formed a new government called the Council of People’s Commissars, with Lenin as leader. -
The Czech Legion rebelled along the Trans-Siberian Railway, triggering widespread fighting. This uprising helped ignite the full-scale Russian Civil War. -
Lenin returned to Russia with German assistance. He issued the April Theses, demanding an end to the war, land for peasants, and power to the Soviets. -
The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, seized key government buildings in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government with minimal resistance. -
Germany surrendered, ending World War I. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was annulled, though Russia did not regain all lost territories. -
The Red Army fought the Whites (monarchists, liberals), Greens (peasants), and foreign forces. The Bolsheviks eventually won through discipline, control of central regions, and the Red Army’s organization.
-
Russia formally exited World War I, surrendering vast territories including Ukraine and the Baltics. Though humiliating, it allowed the Bolsheviks to focus on the Civil War. -
Fearing rescue by anti-Bolshevik forces, the Bolsheviks executed Nicholas II and his family, ending any chance of a monarchist restoration. -
Facing famine and unrest, Lenin introduced the NEP, allowing limited private trade and small businesses to revive the economy while keeping state control of major industries. -
Russia and several neighboring republics united to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, centralizing Communist control under a federal structure. -
Lenin’s death led to a power struggle between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. Stalin eventually emerged victorious, shaping the future of the Soviet Union.