-
Period: to
Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored to the French throne after Napoleon, tried to balance monarchy with some liberal reforms. -
Battle of Waterloo
Final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte by British and Prussian forces, ending the Napoleonic Wars. -
Congress of Vienna
A diplomatic meeting of European powers to restore monarchies and balance of power after Napoleon’s defeat. -
Period: to
Charles X, King of France
Last Bourbon monarch; his conservative policies led to the July Revolution. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium declared independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands following a nationalist uprising. -
Independence of Greece
Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire after a long war supported by Britain, France, and Russia. -
Period: to
Louis Philippe, King of France
Known as the “Citizen King,” he came to power after Charles X and was overthrown during the 1848 Revolution. -
The Zollverein
A German customs union led by Prussia that promoted economic unity and paved the way for political unification. -
Revolution of 1848, Spring of Nations
A wave of liberal and nationalist revolts across Europe demanding democracy and national independence. -
Period: to
France’s Second Republic
Established after the 1848 revolution; it introduced universal male suffrage and elected Louis-Napoleon president. -
Period: to
France’s Second Empire: Napoleon III
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte established an authoritarian regime and modernized France after a coup. -
Period: to
Spanish Liberal Biennium
A short period of progressive liberal reforms in Spain under the reign of Isabella II. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Key Franco-Piedmontese victories against Austria that advanced the unification of northern Italy. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Redshirts to victory in southern Italy, crucial for Italian unification. -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy
First king of a unified Italy, symbolizing national unity under a constitutional monarchy. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and took control of Schleswig and Holstein, increasing German influence. -
Austro-Prussian War
Also called the Seven Weeks’ War; Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs. -
Period: to
Franco-Prussian War
Conflict between France and Prussia; led to the fall of Napoleon III and the unification of Germany. -
Wilhelm I, Kaiser of the Second German Reich
King of Prussia crowned Emperor of Germany after victory over France in Versailles.