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Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored Bourbon monarch who ruled after Napoleon. Tried to balance royalist and revolutionary interests under a constitutional monarchy. -
Congress of Vienna
A major diplomatic conference held to restore order after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to balance power in Europe and suppress revolutionary movements. -
Waterloo Battle
Napoleon Bonaparte's final defeat by the British and Prussians, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
Independence of Greece
Greece fought a war of independence against the Ottoman Empire. Officially recognized as an independent kingdom in 1830. -
Charles X, King of France
A conservative king whose authoritarian policies led to his overthrow in the July Revolution of 1830. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and established a constitutional monarchy. -
Louis Philippe, King of France
Known as the "Citizen King." His reign ended with the 1848 revolution due to widespread dissatisfaction. -
The Zollverein
A customs union led by Prussia that economically unified German states, laying the groundwork for political unification. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium
A brief period of liberal reforms in Spain, including economic and political changes. Ended with a conservative reaction. -
France's Second Republic
Established after the 1848 revolution. Introduced universal male suffrage and some social reforms before being replaced by the Second Empire. -
Revolution of 1848 / The Spring of Nations
Widespread revolts across Europe demanding constitutional governments, national unification, and civil liberties. Mostly suppressed, but had lasting impact. -
.France's Second Republic
estblhised afther the fall of Luis Phillippe -
France's Second Empire: Napoleon III
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself emperor. Focused on modernization and expansion until his fall in the Franco-Prussian War. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
Key victories for France and Piedmont-Sardinia over Austria in the Italian Wars of Unification. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand to unify southern Italy with the north. -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy
Former King of Sardinia who became the first king of a united Italy. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and took control of Schleswig and Holstein, increasing tensions between the two powers. -
Austrian-Prussian War
Also called the Seven Weeks’ War. Prussia defeated Austria and excluded it from German affairs, uniting the northern German states. -
Franco-Prussian War
France was defeated by Prussia, leading to the collapse of the Second Empire and the unification of Germany. -
Wilhelm I, Kaiser of the Second German Reich
