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European wars continued to be fought over dynastic power, showing political continuity. The war increased state debt and taxation. Governments became more involved in managing economies. Peasants continued to bear the greatest economic burden.
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New farming methods increased food production and reduced famine. Population growth followed, supporting economic expansion. This marked a change in productivity and living standards. However, land ownership remained concentrated among elites, showing social continuity.
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Peter modernized Russia’s economy through state-run industries and Western technology. This expanded manufacturing and trade. However, serfdom remained unchanged. Economic growth occurred without major social mobility.
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Rulers used Enlightenment ideas to reform education, religion, and administration. These reforms aimed to strengthen the state and economy. Despite this change, monarchs retained absolute power. Social hierarchy largely remained intact.
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The Encyclopedia spread Enlightenment ideas about reason and economic thought. Literacy and public discussion expanded. This represented a shift toward intellectual openness. Access to education still favored elites, showing continuity.
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Rural families produced goods for wages, increasing household income. This connected villages to larger markets. It marked a shift toward industrial economies. Labor conditions remained harsh, continuing worker exploitation.
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Smith promoted free markets and criticized mercantilism. His ideas influenced economic policy across Europe. This marked a shift toward capitalism. Governments still intervened in economies, showing partial continuity.
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Demand for goods like tea and textiles increased across Europe. The middle class gained access to luxury items. This reflected economic change and rising global trade. Colonial exploitation and slavery continued.
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Economic inequality and debt sparked revolution in France. Feudal privileges and social hierarchy were challenged. This marked a major break from traditional society. Instability and inequality did not immediately disappear.
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Feudal dues and obligations were eliminated. Peasants gained greater economic freedom. This represented a clear break from medieval systems. Wealth inequality still existed.