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Ancient Sumer was one of the first civilizations, embracing the ruling of kings chosen by deities. Its culture was based around hierarchies, with skilled laborers, soldiers, and unskilled laborers. Ancient cities of Sumer allowed for even larger and intricate monuments than the Neolithic, now focused on religion and deities. The first forms of writing and literature originated here.
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A mudbrick temple 40 feet above street level. This temple was seen as the home of a certain god and was off limits for anyone living below. Officials and priests were only allowed access to the lower platform, high priests were allowed access to the main platform, while the king priest was the only person allowed access inside the actual temple. The king priest would go inside the temple, commune with the divine, then relay their message down the line of priests. -
A marble head found in the sacred precinct of Inanna. Marble was a rare material to use in sculpture, meaning that this figure was very expensive and very important. It has a flat back of the head, meaning that it was not meant to be seen from all sides. It is theorized that the rest of her body was made of mud brick, and that her head had other parts and decoration, while her eyes may have been lapis lazuli. It is likely this statue was embedded into a temple wall to watch over devotees. -
Vase used for offerings and composed in hieratic scale. Water is the foundational element, under crops, domesticated animals, undressed slaves carrying food and water, and Inanna receiving offerings by priests and kings. Inanna is the goddess of love, beauty, sexuality, as well as war and political power. Her crown would have extended past her reserved register, signifying her importance above all else. -
Figures of gypsum, shell, and black limestone. They contain early markings in cuneiform (early writing) that were prayers to the gods - consisting of a name and a god the person was dedicating themselves to. These figures would be placed in temples and are depicted in perpetual prayer. Votive figures like these would have their eyes extremely large and dilated to be seen as witnessing the divine. -
A slab depicting the hierarchy of Ur, from slaves to laborers to gods and their devotees. One side tells of war, with the registers depicting the stages of war, conquest, and presentation of victory. This standard belonged to Ur-Pabilsag, a military leader. -
Seal used by the queen of Ur to sign legal documents. The cylinder was rolled over clay to emboss a signature of sorts. -
A figure of gypsum, shells, and lapis lazuli. Lapis lazuli was the rarest and most expensive resource in Sumer. Its bright blue was considered linked to the divine and was used in the eyes of votive figures to signify divine favor when witnessing the gods. -
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, 2254-2218 B.C.E.. Authored by: Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/akkadian/v/victory-stele-of-naram-sin-2254-2218-b-c-e.
Mark, Joshua J.. "Naram-Sin." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified August 07, 2014. https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/. -
While Sumerian art consisted of narrative registers, Akkadians told their stories in a naturalistic, asymmetrical fashion. Akkadian art focused on detailed depictions of historical events, and the legitimization of their rule.
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Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, possibly Sargon the Great. The eyes are missing in the modern day, likely stolen. This act was a damnatio memoriae, a practice meant to remove a ruler from history. The figure wears the helmet of a king. The process to make this sculpture was relatively laborious, using wax and molten bronze. -
A stele depicting the victory of Akkad over the conquered Lullubi people. On the top were three stars representing the three main deities of Akkadian culture. The inclusion of these deities suggests Naram-Sin's conquest was one of divine favor and destiny. Naram-Sin was an extremely prominent figure of the Akkadian Empire, with fame nearing myth. This stele is one of the first depictions of war not made through registers, instead in an asymmetrical symbolic form. -
Ziggurat of Ur. Authored by: Dr. Senta German. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://web.archive.org/web/20140215031116/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/ziggurat-of-ur.html.
Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "Seated Gudea holding temple plan," in Smarthistory, October 26, 2017, accessed September 21, 2025, https://smarthistory.org/gudea/. -
When the Akkadians were destabilized, the Sumerians were able to reinvent their artistic style.
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Mud brick and baked brick ziggurat - a four-sided monument meant to rise to the realm of the gods. This ziggurat was a monument of spiritual nourishment, made tall to be seen from miles away. Bores in the structure allowed moisture to evaporate from the core, and drains were built to relocate rainwater. Efficiency in the function of monuments such as these were important. -
Diorite statue depicting Gudea, ruler of Lagash - a city-state of Sumer. Inscriptions on the statue itself write of the importance of it being made of diorite, meaning Gudea had a very critical eye when investing in the new art of Sumer. This statue has a rare sense of modesty in a deity's presence - not in any sort of hierarchical composition or aggressive pose. -
Ishtar gate and Processional Way. Authored by: Dr. Beth Harris Dr. Steven Zucker. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/babylonian/v/ishtar-gate-and-processional-way-reconstruction-babylon-c-575-b-c-e.
Dr. Senta German, "Law Code Stele of King Hammurabi," in Smarthistory, August 8, 2015, accessed September 22, 2025, https://smarthistory.org/hammurabi-2/. -
Babylon underwent a large building campaign to renovate, providing an abundance of unique art and architecture.
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Basalt stele depicting Hammurabi of Babylon. He was known as one of the farthest-reaching leaders of ancient Mesopotamia, and was intricate in his administration. His legal code, etched in this stele, consisted of specific actions and consequences. Hammurabi is seen at the top of the stele, receiving the laws from the god Shamash, saying that the laws are divine and unquestionable in nature. -
Ashurbanipal hunting lions. Authored by: Dr. Steven Zucker Dr. Beth Harris. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/assyrian/v/ashurbanipal-hunting-lions-assyrian.
Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II. Authored by: Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/assyrian/v/lamassu. -
Ancient Assyria is considered the first empire. While it was famed for its warmongering, it also had an abundant artistic and cultural appreciation. This came in the form of zoological parks, libraries, and palaces.
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Gypseous alabaster statues from the citadel of Sargon II, being two large Lamassu or winged human-headed bulls. The Lamassu were seen as guardians, protecting the gates of the city and the citadel. Their intimidating appearance also resembles that of kings, further cementing their divine power. The process of creating these reliefs was so intricate and strenuous that other reliefs depict the construction process. Carved writing inside damns would-be trespassers. -
A gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Ninevah, depicting different battle and hunting scenes in Assyrian history meant to be seen along a hallway or walkway. Symbolically, the lions are meant to represent the wild aspects of nature; the untamable being tamed exclusively by divine kings. Despite the symbolism, these lions were not killed in the wild, instead in generously prepared arenas. -
Glazed mud brick set of gates at an entrance to the newly rebuilt Babylon. The gates lay at the end of a large procession decorated by many lions, depicted with ferocious expressions and meant to represent the goddess Ishtar. Bulls and chimeric dragons were also depicted, associated with ferocity and the gods Adad and Marduk, respectively. These wild creatures were organized symmetrically to warn of the power the city had over taming the impossible. -
Persepolis: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes, authored by: Dr. Jeffrey Becker. Provided by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/ancient-mediterranean-ap/ancient-near-east-a/a/persepolis.
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The Persians dominated the east, ruling over 44% of Earth's population at the time. Artwork reflected this diversity, with themes of cultural variety and harmony to legitimize their rule.
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Large ceremonial palace with a dedicated audience hall in Persepolis - the capital of the Persian Empire. It once consisted of many columns to support the roof, and had capitals of twin-headed bulls, eagles, or lions. The stairways approaching Apadana were decorated with reliefs of representatives of the twenty-three subject nations bearing gifts for the Persian king.