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4- 2 million years ago
Australopithecus evolves in Africa. This early hominid species is one of the first to walk upright. -
300,000 to 250,000
Homo sapiens (modern humans) emerge in Africa. -
2.5 million years ago
The Homo genus (e.g., Homo habilis) appears, marked by the use of stone tools. -
The Cognitive Revolution: humans develop advanced language and symbolic thought. -
Humans cross into the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge. -
Agriculture begins in Mesoamerica, with the domestication of maize, beans, and squash. -
Villages form in Mesoamerica; pottery-making begins. -
The Olmec civilization flourishes (Gulf Coast of Mexico), creating monumental stone heads and influencing later cultures. -
The first pyramid structures appear in Mesoamerica. -
The Zapotec civilization thrives in Monte Albán. -
The Classic Maya civilization reaches its height in the Yucatán Peninsula, known for its advanced astronomy, mathematics, and writing. -
The Toltec civilization dominates central Mexico, centered in Tula. -
The Aztec Empire rises, with its capital at Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City). They build chinampas (floating gardens) and establish a powerful tributary system. -
Christopher Columbus arrives in the Americas, marking the start of European colonization. -
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba leads an expedition from Cuba and explores the Yucatán Peninsula. This is one of the first Spanish contacts with Mesoamerica.
Encounters with the Maya result in skirmishes, and Córdoba returns to Cuba wounded. -
Juan de Grijalva explores the Gulf Coast of Mexico, reaching areas near modern Veracruz and establishing contact with the Aztecs. The Spanish hear rumors of the wealthy Aztec Empire. -
Hernán Cortés departs from Cuba with 11 ships, around 600 men, and 16 horses. He lands in present-day Tabasco and defeats local Maya forces at the Battle of Centla.
The Tabascans gift him a slave woman, Malintzin (Malinche), who becomes a translator and advisor. She plays a crucial role in Cortés' diplomacy. -
Cortés marches inland, forging alliances with indigenous groups oppressed by the Aztecs, notably the Tlaxcalans, who become crucial allies. -
La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows): The Spanish and their allies are forced to flee Tenochtitlán under heavy attack. Many Spaniards and indigenous allies are killed. -
Cortés enters Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, where he is welcomed by Emperor Moctezuma II. Moctezuma likely hopes to neutralize the Spanish threat through diplomacy. -
Emperor Moctezuma II dies under unclear circumstances, possibly killed by his own people or by the Spanish.
Cuitláhuac, his successor, leads the Aztecs but succumbs to a smallpox epidemic introduced by the Spanish. -
Cortés, with reinforcements from Cuba and his indigenous allies, besieges Tenochtitlán.
After months of starvation, disease, and brutal warfare, the Aztec capital falls on August 13, 1521. Emperor Cuauhtémoc, the last Aztec ruler, is captured.