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"It has been suggested that the 17,000-year-old cave paintings in Lascaux Southern France depict star constellations such as Taurus, Orion's Belt and the Pleiades. However, this view is not yet generally accepted among scientists." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation#History_of_the_early_constellations
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"The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to early peoples, who discovered obtuse triangles in the ancient Indus Valley, and ancient Babylonia from around 3000 BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geometry#Early_geometry
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"The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system.Some scholars point to a character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus
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"The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians, who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an algorithmic fashion. The Babylonians developed formulas to calculate solutions for problems typically solved today by using linear equations, quadratic equations, and indeterminate linear equations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra#History
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"There is debate whether the Pythagorean theorem was discovered once, or many times in many places, and the date of first discovery is uncertain, as is the date of the first proof. Historians of Mesopotamian mathematics have concluded that the Pythagorean rule was in widespread use during the Old Babylonian period (20th to 16th centuries BC), over a thousand years before Pythagoras was born" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem#History
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"The earliest sundials known from the archaeological record are shadow clocks (1500 BC or BCE) from ancient Egyptian astronomy and Babylonian astronomy.The Roman writer Vitruvius lists dials and shadow clocks known at that time in his De architectura. A canonical sundial is one that indicates the canonical hours of liturgical acts.The Italian astronomer Giovanni Padovani published a treatise on the sundial in 1570." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundial#History
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"Babylonian astronomy was the study or recording of celestial objects during early history Mesopotamia. These records can be found on Sumerian clay tablets, inscribed in cuneiform, dated to around 1000 BCE." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy
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"Around 600BC, Thales of Miletus discovered that rubbing amber caused it to be able to pick up leaves and dust." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_electricity#History
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"In China, the earliest known geographical Chinese writing dates back to the 5th century BC, during the beginning of the Warring States (481–221 BC). This was the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu chapter of the Shu Jing or Book of Documents." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cartography
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"His theories about eclipses, the Sun and Moon may well have been based on observations of the eclipse of 463 BCE, which was visible in Greece. He was the first to explain that the Moon shines due to reflected light from the Sun. He also said that the Moon had mountains and believed that it was inhabited." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras
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"The oldest certain reference to the use of lenses is from Aristophanes' play The Clouds (424 BC) mentioning a burning-glass. Pliny the Elder (1st c) confirms that burning-glasses were known in the Roman period. Pliny also has the earliest known reference to the use of a corrective lens when he mentions that Nero was said to watch the gladiatorial games using an emerald (presumably concave to correct for nearsightedness, though the reference is vague)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens#History
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"Throughout Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes (Chinese: 浑象) to assist the observation of the stars. The Chinese also used the armillary sphere in aiding calendrical computations and calculations.According to Needham, the earliest development of the armillary sphere in China goes back to the astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De in the 4th century BC, as they were equipped with a primitive single-ring armillary instrument." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillary_sphere#History
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"Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China (Zhan Guo times – Late East Zhou dynasty), which have been preserved at the Luoyang Museum of Henan Province, China.The earliest preserved gears in Europe were found in the Antikythera mechanism, an example of a very early and intricate geared device, designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#History
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"Meteorology (Greek: Μετεωρολογικά; Latin: Meteorologica or Meteora) is a treatise by Aristotle. The text discusses what Aristotle believed to have been all the affections common to air and water, and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts. It includes early accounts of water evaporation, earthquakes, and other weather phenomena." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)
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"The study of the physical material of the Earth dates back at least to ancient Greece when Theophrastus (372–287 BCE) wrote the work Peri Lithon (On Stones). During the Roman period, Pliny the Elder wrote in detail of the many minerals and metals then in practical use – even correctly noting the origin of amber." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology#History
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"On Floating Bodies (Greek: Περὶ τῶν ἐπιπλεόντων σωμάτων) is a Greek-language work consisting of two books written by Archimedes of Syracuse (287 – c. 212 BC), one of the most important mathematicians, physicists, and engineers of antiquity. On Floating Bodies, which is thought to have been written around 250 BC, survives only partly in Greek, the rest in medieval Latin translation from the Greek." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Floating_Bodies
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"An early astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic civilization by Apollonius of Perga between 220 and 150 BC, often attributed to Hipparchus. The astrolabe was a marriage of the planisphere and dioptra, effectively an analog calculator capable of working out several different kinds of problems in astronomy." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe#History
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"The compass was invented in China during the Han Dynasty between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD where it was called the "south-governor" (sīnán 司南). The magnetic compass was not, at first, used for navigation, but for geomancy and fortune-telling by the Chinese. The earliest Chinese magnetic compasses were possibly used to order and harmonize buildings in accordance with the geomantic principles of feng shui." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_compass
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"The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earth's precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry#History
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"In astronomy, the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, often exemplified specifically by the Ptolemaic system) is a superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center. Under the geocentric model, the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets all orbited Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model
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"There is only limited information on ancient Greek constellations, with some fragmentary evidence being found in the Works and Days of the Greek poet Hesiod, who mentioned the "heavenly bodies". Greek astronomy essentially adopted the older Babylonian system in the Hellenistic era[citation needed], first introduced to Greece by Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century BC."
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"The theory of impetus[1] was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It was introduced by John Philoponus in the 6th century,[2][3] and elaborated by Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji at the end of the 12th century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_impetus
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"The notion of longitude was developed by the Greek Eratosthenes (c. 276 BC – c. 195 BC) in Alexandria, and Hipparchus (c. 190 BC – c. 120 BC) in Rhodes, and applied to a large number of cities by the geographer Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD). But it was Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168) who first used a consistent meridian for a world map in his Geographia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_meridian#History
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"Alpha Centauri is listed in the 2nd-century star catalog of Ptolemy. He gave its ecliptic coordinates, but texts differ as to whether the ecliptic latitude reads 44° 10′ South or 41° 10′ South.[59] (Presently the ecliptic latitude is 43.5° South, but it has decreased by a fraction of a degree since Ptolemy's time due to proper motion.) " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Centauri#Observational_history
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"Zosimos of Panopolis (Greek: Ζώσιμος ὁ Πανοπολίτης; also known by the Latin name Zosimus Alchemista, i.e. "Zosimus the Alchemist") was an Egyptian-born Greek alchemist and Gnostic mystic.He wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, which he called "Cheirokmeta," using the Greek word for "things made by hand." Pieces of this work survive in the original Greek language and in translations into Syriac or Arabic." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis
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"Although the Hindu–Arabic numeral system (i.e. decimal) was developed by Indian mathematicians around AD 500, they were modified into Arabic numerals later in North Africa. It was in the North African city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. European trade, books, and colonialism helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals
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"Early study of triangles can be traced to the 2nd millennium BC, in Egyptian mathematics (Rhind Mathematical Papyrus) and Babylonian mathematics. Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy.In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata (sixth century CE), who discovered the sine function." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_trigonometry
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"Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi, a Persian astronomer, conducted various observations at the Al-Shammisiyyah observatory in Baghdad between 825 and 835 AD. Using these observations, he estimated the Moon's diameter as 3,037 km (equivalent to 1,519 km radius) and its distance from the Earth as 346,345 km (215,209 mi), which come close to the currently accepted values." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon#Before_spaceflight
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"The Book of Ingenious Devices (Arabic: كتاب الحيل Kitab al-Hiyal, Persian: كتاب ترفندها Ketab tarfandha) was a large illustrated work on mechanical devices, including automata, published in 850 by the three brothers of Persian descent, known as the Banu Musa (Ahmad, Muhammad and Hasan bin Musa ibn Shakir) working at the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad, Iraq, under the Abbasid Caliphate." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Ingenious_Devices
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"The University of al-Qarawiyyin (Arabic: جامعة القرويين; French: Université Al Quaraouiyine), also written Al-Karaouine, is a university located in Fez, Morocco. It is the oldest existing, continually operating higher educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin
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"The medieval astronomical theory of the trepidation of the equinoxes is often attributed to Thābit.But it had already been described by Theon of Alexandria in his comments of the Handy Tables of Ptolemy. Thābit determined the length of the sidereal year as 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 12 seconds (an error of 2 seconds). Copernicus based his claim on the Latin text attributed to Thābit. Thābit published his observations of the Sun" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C4%81bit_ibn_Qurra
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"The Book of Fixed Stars (Arabic: كتاب صور الكواكب kitāb suwar al-kawākib) is an astronomical text written by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) around 964. He has the earliest known descriptions and illustrations of what he called "a little cloud", which is actually the Andromeda Galaxy." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars
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"It is a seven-volume treatise on optics and other fields of study composed by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham, known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen (965–c. 1040 AD)
The Book of Optics presented experimentally founded arguments against the widely held extramission theory of vision (as held by Euclid in his Optica), and proposed the modern intromission theory, the now accepted model that vision takes place by light entering the eye" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics -
"The earliest text describing the azimuthal equidistant projection is an 11th-century work by al-Biruni." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuthal_equidistant_projection
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"Bīrūnī devised a novel method of determining the earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at Nandana in Pind Dadan Khan (present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Biruni#Geography_and_Geodesy
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"The University of Bologna (Italian: Alma mater studiorum - Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is a research university in Bologna, Italy. Funded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (hence studiorum), it is the oldest university in the world,as well as one of the leading academic institutions in Italy and Europe" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bologna
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"Liber Abaci (also spelled as Liber Abbaci) ("The Book of Calculation") is a historic 1202 Latin manuscript on arithmetic by Leonardo of Pisa, posthumously known as Fibonacci
Liber Abaci was among the first Western books to describe the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and to use symbols traditionally described as "Arabic numerals"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber_Abaci -
"The most sophisticated timekeeping astrolabes were the geared astrolabe mechanisms designed by Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī in the 11th century and by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr in the 13th century. These devices functioned as timekeeping devices and also as calendars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock#Astronomical
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"Norse cosmology is the study of the cosmos (cosmology) as perceived by the North Germanic peoples. The topic encompasses concepts from Norse mythology, such as notions of time and space, cosmogony, personifications, anthropogeny, and eschatology.These concepts are primarily recorded in a collection of poems compiled in the 13th century, and the Prose Edda, authored by Icelander Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_cosmology
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"The first gunpowder-powered rockets evolved in medieval China under the Song dynasty by the 13th century. The Mongols adopted Chinese rocket technology and the invention spread via the Mongol invasions to the Middle East and to Europe in the mid-13th century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket#History
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"The Tusi couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the diameter of the smaller circle. Rotations of the circles cause a point on the circumference of the smaller circle to oscillate back and forth in linear motion along a diameter of the larger circle. The Tusi couple is a 2-cusped hypocycloid." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusi_couple
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"The torquetum or turquet is a medieval astronomical instrument designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates: Horizon, equatorial, and ecliptic.The first torquetum is thought to have been built by Jabir ibn Aflah (more commonly known as Geber). However, there is conflicting evidence that suggests that Jabir simply inspired the invention of the torquetum." . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquetum
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"Codex on the Flight of Birds is a relatively short codex from c. 1505 by Leonardo da Vinci. It comprises 18 folios and measures 21 × 15 centimetres. Now held at the Royal Library of Turin, the codex begins with an examination of the flight behavior of birds and proposes mechanisms for flight by machines. Leonardo constructed a number of these machines, and attempted to launch them from a hill near Florence." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_on_the_Flight_of_Birds
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"Heliocentrism[a] is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center.It was not until the 16th century that a mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented, by the Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism
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""On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance. The book, first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire, offered an alternative model of the universe to Ptolemy's geocentric system, which had been widely accepted since ancient times." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium
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"An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and in 1565 by Nicolás Monardes in the infusion known as lignum nephriticum (Latin for "kidney wood"). It was derived from the wood of two tree species, Pterocarpus indicus and Eysenhardtia polystachya." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence#History
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"He was a Dutch spectacle-maker who lived most of his life in Middelburg. He is associated with the invention of the first optical telescope and/or the first truly compound microscope, but these claims (made 20 years after his death) may be fabrications put forward by his son." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zacharias_Janssen
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"Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus's work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet. Published in 1600, Gilbert's work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field#History
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"Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis#Discovery
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"Uranometria is a star atlas produced by Johann Bayer. It was published in Augsburg in 1603 by Christoph Mang (Christophorus Mangus) under the full title Uranometria : omnium asterismorum continens schemata, nova methodo delineata, aereis laminis expressa. This translates to "Uranometria, containing charts of all the constellations, drawn by a new method and engraved on copper plates"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranometria
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"The idea that the Moon is not perfectly smooth originates to at least c. 450 BC, when Democritus asserted that the Moon's "lofty mountains and hollow valleys" were the cause of its markings. However, not until the end of the 15th century AD did serious study of selenography began. Around AD 1603, William Gilbert made the first lunar drawing based on naked-eye observation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenography
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"The earliest use of the term "camera obscura" is found in the 1604 book Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer Johannes Kepler.Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many-cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura
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"Hans Lipperhey (1570 – buried 29 September 1619), also known as Johann Lippershey or Lippershey, was a German-Dutch spectacle-maker. He is commonly associated with the invention of the telescope, because he was the first one who tried to obtain a patent for it. It is, however, unclear if he was the first one to build a telescope." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Lipperhey
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"C/1680 V1, also called the Great Comet of 1680, Kirch's Comet, and Newton's Comet, was the first comet discovered by telescope. It was discovered by Gottfried Kirch and was one of the brightest comets of the seventeenth century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Comet_of_1680
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"The Galilean moons (or Galilean satellites) /ɡælɪˈliːən/ are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were first seen by Galileo Galilei in December 1609 or January 1610, and recognized by him as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610.They were the first objects found to orbit a planet other than the Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons
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"Sidereus Nuncius (usually Sidereal Messenger, also Starry Messenger or Sidereal Message) is a short astronomical treatise (or pamphlet) published in New Latin by Galileo Galilei on March 13, 1610 It was the first published scientific work based on observations made through a telescope, and it contains the results of Galileo's early observations" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius
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"In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun, published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619. These improved the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how planetary velocities vary." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion
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"Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its velocity. This includes changes to the object's speed, or direction of motion. An aspect of this property is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at a constant speed, when no forces act upon them." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia
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"The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) is a 1632 Italian-language book by Galileo Galilei comparing the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. It was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum (English: Cosmic System) in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
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"Systems of linear equations arose in Europe with the introduction in 1637 by René Descartes of coordinates in geometry. In fact, in this new geometry, now called Cartesian geometry, lines and planes are represented by linear equations, and computing their intersections amounts to solving systems of linear equations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra
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"Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio (Selenography, or A Description of The Moon) was printed in 1647 and is a milestone work by Johannes Hevelius. It includes the first detailed map of the moon, created from Hevelius's personal observations" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenographia,_sive_Lunae_descriptio
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"It is a principle in fluid mechanics given by Blaise Pascal that states that a pressure change at any point in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere. The law was established by French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1647–48." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_law
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"The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics#History
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"Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, and the sixth known planetary satellite (after Earth's moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter). Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii. From Titan's surface, Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees and would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky than the Moon from Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(moon)
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"Christiaan Huygens coined the term "centrifugal force" in his 1659 De Vi Centrifuga and wrote of it in his 1673 Horologium Oscillatorium on pendulums. Isaac Newton coined the term "centripetal force" (vis centripita) in his discussions of gravity in his 1684 De Motu Corporum." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_centrifugal_and_centripetal_forces
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"The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes is the title of a book by Robert Boyle, published in London in 1661. In the form of a dialogue, the Sceptical Chymist presented Boyle's hypothesis that matter consisted of corpuscles and clusters of corpuscles in motion and that every phenomenon was the result of collisions of particles in motion." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist
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"Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coined the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") in his book Micrographia (1665)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrographia
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"The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, and the number has increased rapidly after that." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal#History
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"Isaac Newton has been generally credited with building the first reflecting telescope in 1668. It used a spherically ground metal primary mirror and a small diagonal mirror in an optical configuration that has come to be known as the Newtonian telescope." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_telescope
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"Differential equations first came into existence with the invention of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. In Chapter 2 of his 1671 work Methodus fluxionum et Serierum Infinitarum" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation#History
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"Iapetus was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, an Italian-born French astronomer, in October 1671. He had discovered it on the western side of Saturn and tried viewing it on the eastern side some months later, but was unsuccessful." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iapetus_(moon)
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"Rhea was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini on 23 December 1672. It was the second moon of Saturn that Cassini discovered, and the third moon discovered around Saturn overall" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhea_(moon)
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"Rømer's determination of the speed of light was the demonstration in 1676 that light has a finite speed and so does not travel instantaneously. By timing the eclipses of the Jupiter moon Io, Rømer estimated that light would take about 22 minutes to travel a distance equal to the diameter of Earth's orbit around the Sun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B8mer%27s_determination_of_the_speed_of_light
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Hooke's law is a law of physics that states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance (x) scales linearly with respect to that distance, that is, F8=kx, where k is a constant factor characteristic of the spring, and x is small compared to the total possible deformation of the spring. The law is named after 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke. He first stated the law in 1676 as a Latin anagram. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke%27s_law
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"Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single-lens microscope of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria
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"Tethys was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684 together with Dione, another moon of Saturn. He had also discovered two moons, Rhea and Iapetus earlier, in 1671–72. Cassini observed all of these moons using a large aerial telescope he set up on the grounds of the Paris Observatory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_(moon)
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"It was discovered by Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684. It is named after the Titaness Dione of Greek mythology. It is also designated Saturn IV.Cassini found Dione in 1684 using a large aerial telescope he set up on the grounds of the Paris Observatory.The satellites of Saturn were not named until 1847, when William Herschel's son John Herschel published Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_(moon)
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"Newton's cradle is a device that demonstrates conservation of momentum and energy using a series of swinging spheres. When one sphere at the end is lifted and released, it strikes the stationary spheres, transmitting a force through the stationary spheres that pushes the last sphere upward." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_cradle#History
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"The Principia states Newton's laws of motion, forming the foundation of classical mechanics; Newton's law of universal gravitation; and a derivation of Kepler's laws of planetary motion (which Kepler first obtained empirically)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
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"The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1689 and appears in his article Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire. The full title is translated into English as the "Explanation of the binary arithmetic", which uses only the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese figures of Fu Xi." (1703). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_code#History_of_binary_codes
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"Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678, and published it in his Treatise on light in 1690. He proposed that light was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the Luminiferous ether. As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light#Wave_theory
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"The book analyzes the fundamental nature of light by means of the refraction of light with prisms and lenses, the diffraction of light by closely spaced sheets of glass, and the behaviour of color mixtures with spectral lights or pigment powders. It is considered one of the great works of science in history." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks
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"In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time. This law, first proposed and tested by Émilie du Châtelet, means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes."
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"It uses the degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) as the unit. Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist. The lower defining point, 0 °F, was established as the freezing temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice, water and a salt (ammonium chloride)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheit
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"In 1724, George Graham reported that the needle of a magnetic compass was regularly deflected from magnetic north over the course of each day. This effect was eventually attributed to overhead electric currents flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere by Balfour Stewart in 1882, and confirmed by Arthur Schuster in 1889 from analysis of magnetic observatory data." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_weather#Genesis
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"Credit for the invention of the first achromatic doublet is often given to an English barrister and amateur optician named Chester Moore Hall. Hall wished to keep his work on the achromatic lenses a secret and contracted the manufacture of the crown and flint lenses to two different opticians, Edward Scarlett and James Mann" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achromatic_lens#History
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"The principle of the instrument was first implemented around 1731 by John Hadley (1682–1744) and Thomas Godfrey (1704–1749), but it was also found later in the unpublished writings of Isaac Newton (1643–1727). In 1922, it was modified for aeronautical navigation by Portuguese navigator and naval officer Gago Coutinho." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextant
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"The bit is a basic unit of information in information theory, computing, and digital communications. The name is a portmanteau of binary digit.The encoding of data by discrete bits was used in the punched cards invented by Basile Bouchon and Jean-Baptiste Falcon (1732), developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard (1804), and later adopted by Semyon Korsakov, Charles Babbage, Hermann Hollerith, and early computer manufacturers like IBM." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit#History
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"The formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.5 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. This model, known as the nebular hypothesis was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System
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"It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale. Before being renamed to honor Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps. Since 1743 the Celsius scale has been based on 0 °C for the freezing point of water and 100 °C for the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius
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"In the early modern period, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the caloric. Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term heat capacity, named and first investigated by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics
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"The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as the system's mass cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Therefore, the quantity of mass is conserved over time." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_mass
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"Halley's returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC. Clear records of the comet's appearances were made by Chinese, Babylonian, and medieval European chroniclers, but, at those times, were not recognized as reappearances of the same object. The comet's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer Edmond Halley, after whom it is now named." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet
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"The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution
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"The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo
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"A nautical almanac is a publication describing the positions of a selection of celestial bodies for the purpose of enabling navigators to use celestial navigation to determine the position of their ship while at sea.In Great Britain, The Nautical Almanac has been published annually by HM Nautical Almanac Office, ever since the first edition was published in 1767." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_almanac
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"The Messier objects are a set of 110 astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in his Catalogue des Nébuleuses et des Amas d'Étoiles ("Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters"). Because Messier was only interested in finding comets, he created a list of non-comet objects that frustrated his hunt for them. The compilation of this list, in collaboration with his assistant Pierre Méchain, is known as the Messier catalogue." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_object
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"The three collinear Lagrange points (L1, L2, L3) were discovered by Leonhard Euler a few years before Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered the remaining two.In 1772, Lagrange published an "Essay on the three-body problem". He considered the general three-body problem. From that, in the second chapter, he demonstrated two special constant-pattern solutions, the collinear and the equilateral, for any three masses, with circular orbits" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point#History
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"The first usage may have occurred during the 1780s with the English astronomer William Herschel who described these nebulae as resembling planets; however, as early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, "very dim but perfectly outlined; it is as large as Jupiter and resembles a fading planet"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula
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"Henry Cavendish showed that water was composed of oxygen and hydrogen in 1781. The first decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, by electrolysis, was done in 1800 by English chemist William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Properties_of_water#History
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"Sir William Herschel observed Uranus on 13 March 1781 from the garden of his house at 19 New King Street in Bath, Somerset, England (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy), and initially reported it (on 26 April 1781) as a comet. With a telescope, Herschel "engaged in a series of observations on the parallax of the fixed stars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus
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"In France during 1783, the first public experiment with hydrogen-filled balloons involved Jacques Charles, a French professor of physics, and the Robert brothers, renowned constructors of physics instruments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_balloon#The_first_hydrogen_balloon
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"The 1783 Great Meteor was an unusually bright bolide observed on 18 August 1783, from the British Isles at a time when such phenomena were not well understood. The meteor was the subject of much discussion in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and was the subject of a detailed study by Charles Blagden." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1783_Great_Meteor
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"is the largest of the moons of Uranus and the eighth largest moon in the Solar System at a diameter of 1,578 kilometres (981 mi). Discovered by William Herschel in 1787, Titania is named after the queen of the fairies in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream. Its orbit lies inside Uranus's magnetosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titania_(moon)
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"Oberon was discovered by William Herschel on January 11, 1787; on the same day he discovered Uranus's largest moon, Titania. He later reported the discoveries of four more satellites, although they were subsequently revealed as spurious. For nearly fifty years following their discovery, Titania and Oberon can be seen from Earth with a present-day high-end amateur telescope." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberon_(moon)
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"In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths. Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table#First_systemization_attempts
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"Enceladus was discovered by William Herschel on August 28, 1789, during the first use of his new 1.2 m (47 in) 40-foot telescope, then the largest in the world, at Observatory House in Slough, England.Its faint apparent magnitude (HV = +11.7) and its proximity to the much brighter Saturn and Saturn's rings make Enceladus difficult to observe from Earth with smaller telescopes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus
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"Mimas was discovered by the astronomer William Herschel on 17 September 1789. He recorded his discovery as follows: "The great light of my forty-foot [12 m] telescope was so useful that on the 17th of September, 1789, I remarked the seventh satellite, then situated at its greatest western elongation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimas_(moon)
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"In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined the path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics
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"Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery#History
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"The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared#History_of_infrared_science
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"UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet#Discovery
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"Ceres was the first asteroid to be discovered (by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory on 1 January 1801). It was originally considered a planet, but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s after many other objects in similar orbits were discovered." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)
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"When Pallas was discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers on 28 March 1802, it was counted as a planet, as were other asteroids in the early 19th century. The discovery of many more asteroids after 1845 eventually led to their reclassification." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Pallas
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"Juno was discovered on 1 September 1804, by Karl Ludwig Harding. It was the third asteroid found, but was initially considered to be a planet; it was reclassified as an asteroid and minor planet during the 1850s" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_Juno
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"The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, the first amino acid to be discovered. Cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid
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"Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas in 1802, the year after the discovery of Ceres. He proposed that the two objects were the remnants of a destroyed planet. He sent a letter with his proposal to the British astronomer William Herschel, suggesting that a search near the locations where the orbits of Ceres and Pallas intersected might reveal more fragments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vesta
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"In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory#History
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"Michael Faraday FRS (/ˈfærədeɪ, -di/; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday#Electricity_and_magnetism
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"The first instrument used more like an actual gyroscope was made by Johann Bohnenberger of Germany, who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the "Machine". Bohnenberger's machine was based on a rotating massive sphere.In 1832, American Walter R. Johnson developed a similar device that was based on a rotating disc." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope#History
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"The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.[28] Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography#Invention
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"The first theory of the conversion of heat into mechanical work is due to Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. He was the first to realize correctly that the efficiency of this conversion depends on the difference of temperature between an engine and its environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics#History
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"Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern ideas about the atomic theory and chemical elements. It first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound#History
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"Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday, published in 1831. It was discovered independently by Joseph Henry in 1832. In Faraday's first experimental demonstration (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron ring or "torus" (an arrangement similar to a modern toroidal transformer)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction#History
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"Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#History
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"It was not until the invention of the electric telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 160 kilometres per day (100 mi/d), but was more typically 60–120 kilometres per day (40–75 mi/day) (whether by land or by sea)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecasting#History
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"The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni, and he used a 6.2-inch (160 mm) heliometer designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer."
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"The parsec is defined as being equal to the length of the longer leg of an extremely elongated imaginary right triangle in space. The two dimensions on which this triangle is based are its shorter leg, of length one astronomical unit (the average Earth-Sun distance), and the subtended angle of the vertex opposite that leg, measuring one arcsecond." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec#History_and_derivation
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"In 1839, at age 19, experimenting in his father's laboratory, Becquerel created the world's first photovoltaic cell. In this experiment, silver chloride or silver bromide was used to coat the platinum electrodes; once the electrodes were illuminated, voltage and current were generated. Because of this work, the photovoltaic effect has also been known as the "Becquerel effect". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Becquerel
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"The first known attempt at astronomical photography was by Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, inventor of the daguerreotype process which bears his name, who attempted in 1839 to photograph the Moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophotography#History
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"An electrical telegraph was a point-to-point text messaging system, used from the 1840s until better systems became widespread. It used coded pulses of electric current through dedicated wires to transmit information over long distances." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History
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"Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London, 12 years later." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber#History
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"The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source.[1] It is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who described the phenomenon in 1842."
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"Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century. One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsar's Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry#History
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"Astraea was the fifth asteroid discovered, on 8 December 1845, by Karl Ludwig Hencke and named for Astræa, a goddess of justice named after the stars. It was his first of two asteroid discoveries. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_Astraea
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"The position of Neptune was subsequently calculated from Bouvard's observations, independently, by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier after his death. Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Le Verrier" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune
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"Triton was discovered by British astronomer William Lassell on October 10, 1846, just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune. When John Herschel received news of Neptune's discovery, he wrote to Lassell suggesting he search for possible moons. Lassell did so and discovered Triton eight days later. Lassell also claimed for a period to have discovered rings." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(moon)
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"Hebe was discovered on 1 July 1847 by Karl Ludwig Hencke, the sixth asteroid discovered. It was the second and final asteroid discovery by Hencke, after 5 Astraea. The name Hebe, goddess of youth, was proposed by Carl Friedrich Gauss." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_Hebe
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"Iris was discovered on August 13, 1847, by J. R. Hind from London, UK. It was Hind's first asteroid discovery and the seventh asteroid to be discovered overall." Iris was discovered on August 13, 1847, by J. R. Hind from London, UK. It was Hind's first asteroid discovery and the seventh asteroid to be discovered overall." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_Iris
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"Flora was discovered by J. R. Hind on October 18, 1847. It was his second asteroid discovery after 7 Iris.
The name Flora was proposed by John Herschel, from Flora, the Latin goddess of flowers and gardens, wife of Zephyrus " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8_Flora -
"Metis was discovered by Andrew Graham on 25 April 1848, at Markree Observatory in Ireland; it was his only asteroid discovery. It also has been the only asteroid to have been discovered as a result of observations from Ireland until 7 October 2008, when, 160 years later, Dave McDonald from observatory J65 discovered (281507) 2008 TM9" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_Metis
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"is a moon of Saturn discovered by William Cranch Bond, George Phillips Bond and William Lassell in 1848. It is distinguished by its irregular shape, its chaotic rotation, and its unexplained sponge-like appearance. It was the first non-round moon to be discovered." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_(moon)
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The number π (/paɪ/) is a mathematical constant. It is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter, and it also has various equivalent definitions. It appears in many formulas in all areas of mathematics and physics. It is approximately equal to 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter "π" since the mid-18th century, and is spelled out as "pi". It is also referred to as Archimedes' constant.
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"The Foucault pendulum or Foucault's pendulum is a simple device named after French physicist Léon Foucault and conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the Earth's rotation. The pendulum was introduced in 1851 and was the first experiment to give simple, direct evidence of the earth's rotation. Foucault pendulums today are popular displays in science museums and universities." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulum
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"The future prime meridian based at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London, England, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851. By 1884, over two-thirds of all ships and tonnage used it as the reference meridian on their charts and maps. In October of that year, at the behest of US President Chester A. Arthur, 41 delegates from 25 nations met in Washington, D.C., United States, for the International Meridian Conference." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_meridian_(Greenwich)
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"It was discovered in October 1851 by William Lassell and named for a character in two different pieces of literature. As of 2019, much of the detailed knowledge of Ariel derives from a single flyby of Uranus performed by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in 1986, which managed to image around 35% of the moon's surface." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_(moon)
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"Umbriel, along with another Uranian satellite, Ariel, was discovered by William Lassell on October 24, 1851.Although William Herschel, the discoverer of Titania and Oberon, claimed at the end of the 18th century that he had observed four additional moons of Uranus, his observations were not confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbriel_(moon)
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"The discovery of electrons by Joseph Thomson was closely tied with the experimental and theoretical research of cathode rays for decades by many physicists. While studying electrical conductivity in rarefied gases in 1859, the German physicist Julius Plücker observed that the phosphorescent light."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron#History
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"The origins of spherical trigonometry in Greek mathematics and the major developments in Islamic mathematics.The subject came to fruition in Early Modern times with important developments by John Napier, Delambre and others, and attained an essentially complete form by the end of the 19th century with the publication of Todhunter's textbook Spherical trigonometry for the use of colleges and Schools." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry
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"Richard Carrington observed a flare for the first time on 1 September 1859 projecting the image produced by an optical telescope through a broad-band filter. It was an extraordinarily intense white light flare. Since flares produce copious amounts of radiation at Hα, adding a narrow ( ≈1 Å) passband filter centered at this wavelength to the optical telescope allows the observation of not very bright flares with small telescopes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flare#History
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"The existence of particles flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind
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"The September 1859 geomagnetic storm (also known as the Carrington Event)[1] was a powerful geomagnetic storm during solar cycle 10 (1855–1867). A solar coronal mass ejection (CME) hit Earth's magnetosphere and induced the largest geomagnetic storm on record on September 1–2, 1859. The associated "white light flare" in the solar photosphere was observed and recorded by British astronomers Richard C. Carrington and Richard Hodgson." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_1859_geomagnetic_storm
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"Before Jansky observed the Milky Way in the 1930s, physicists speculated that radio waves could be observed from astronomical sources. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell's equations had shown that electromagnetic radiation is associated with electricity and magnetism, and could exist at any wavelength." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy
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"In 1862–64 James Clerk Maxwell developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation#History_of_discovery
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"The ITU is the oldest international organization, preceded by the now defunct International Telegraph Union which drafted the earliest international standards and regulations governing international telegraph networks. The development of the telegraph in the early 19th century changed the way people communicated on the local and international levels. Between 1849 and 1865." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union#History
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"Tempel 1 (official designation: 9P/Tempel) is a periodic Jupiter-family comet discovered by Wilhelm Tempel in 1867. It completes an orbit of the Sun every 5.5 years. Tempel 1 was the target of the Deep Impact space mission, which photographed a deliberate high-speed impact upon the comet in 2005. It was re-visited by the Stardust spacecraft on February 14, 2011 and came back to perihelion in August 2016." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempel_1
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"Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous Nobel Prizes. Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Miescher, who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the nucleus. It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA
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"DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein".In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
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"The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid standardization and industrialization from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the middle of 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution
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"The reason for the odd arrangement of letters in the Harvard classification is historical, having evolved from the earlier Secchi classes and been progressively modified as understanding improved.During the 1860s and 1870s, pioneering stellar spectroscopist Angelo Secchi created the Secchi classes in order to classify observed spectra. By 1866, he had developed three classes of stellar spectra, shown in the table below" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification
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"However Dr. Alexander Graham Bell personally thought that videotelephony was achievable even though his contributions to its advancement were incidental. In April 1891, Dr. Bell actually did record conceptual notes on an 'electrical radiophone', which discussed the possibility of "seeing by electricity" using devices that employed tellurium or selenium imaging components." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony#Early_history
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The aircraft used a very compact, high-speed circulation steam engine for which Félix du Temple applied for a patent on 28 April 1876. The engine used very small pipes packed together "to obtain the highest possible contact surface for the smallest possible volume" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du_Temple_Monoplane
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Deimos was discovered by Asaph Hall, III at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. on 12 August 1877. It is named after Deimos, a figure representing dread in Greek mythology.[10] The names, at first spelled Phobus and Deimus, were suggested by Henry Madan (1838–1901), Science Master of Eton, from Book XV of the Iliad, where Ares (the Roman god Mars) summons Dread (Deimos) and Fear (Phobos)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon)
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"Phobos was discovered by astronomer Asaph Hall on 18 August 1877, at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., at about 09:14 Greenwich Mean Time." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon)
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"Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb#Early_pre-commercial_research
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"After devising a commercially viable electric light bulb on October 21, 1879, Edison developed an electric "utility" to compete with the existing gas light utilities. On December 17, 1880, he founded the Edison Illuminating Company, and during the 1880s, he patented a system for electricity distribution." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison#Electric_power_distribution
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"The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified. In the late 19th century, scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science
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"Central European Time (CET), used in most parts of Europe and a few North African countries, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The time offset from UTC can be written as UTC+01:00. The same standard time, UTC+01:00, is also known as Middle European Time (MET, German: MEZ) and under other names like Berlin Time, Warsaw Time, Paris Time or Rome Time.In 1884 Serbia starts using CET." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_Time
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"Sandford Fleming promoted worldwide standard time zones, a prime meridian, and the use of the 24-hour clock as key elements in communicating the accurate time.He referred to the resulting system as Cosmic Time.At the 1884 International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., the local mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in England was chosen to define the Universal day, counted from 0 hours at mean midnight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time#History
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"In March 1885, he met with patent attorney Lemuel W. Serrell, the same attorney used by Edison, to obtain help with submitting the patents. Serrell introduced Tesla to two businessmen, Robert Lane and Benjamin Vail, who agreed to finance an arc lighting manufacturing and utility company in Tesla's name, the Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla#Tesla_Electric_Light_&_Manufacturing
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"In 1885, the words "Scientific method" appear together with a description of the method in Francis Ellingwood Abbot's 'Scientific Theism'" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scientific_method#Mention_of_the_topic
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"Noctilucent clouds are first known to have been observed in 1885, two years after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.In the years following their discovery, the clouds were studied extensively by Otto Jesse of Germany, who was the first to photograph them, in 1887, and seems to have been the one to coin the term "noctilucent cloud", which means "night-shining cloud". His notes provide evidence that noctilucent clouds first appeared in 1885." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucent_cloud
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"The Carte du Ciel (literally, 'Map of the Sky') and the Astrographic Catalogue (or Astrographic Chart) were two distinct but connected components of a massive international astronomical project, initiated in the late 19th century, to catalogue and map the positions of millions of stars as faint as 11th or 12th magnitude." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carte_du_Ciel
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"In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421–441 (1888))." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display#History
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"The invention of radio communication, although generally attributed to Guglielmo Marconi in the 1890s, spanned many decades, from theoretical underpinnings, through proof of the phenomenon's existence, development of technical means, to its final use in signalling." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio#Invention
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"Karl Wilhelm Otto Lilienthal (23 May 1848 – 10 August 1896) was a German pioneer of aviation who became known as the "flying man". He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful flights with gliders. Newspapers and magazines published photographs of Lilienthal gliding, favourably influencing public and scientific opinion about the possibility of flying machines becoming practical." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal
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"After 1890, inventor Nikola Tesla experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using spark-excited radio frequency resonant transformers, now called Tesla coils, which generated high AC voltages." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer#History
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"The device was invented and patented as the "Cinématographe Léon Bouly" by French inventor Léon Bouly on February 12, 1892. Bouly coined the term "cinematograph," from the Greek for "writing in movement." Due to a lack of money, Bouly could not develop his ideas properly and maintain his patent fees, so he sold his rights to the device and name to the Lumière brothers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinematograph#History
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"Amalthea was discovered on 9 September 1892, by Edward Emerson Barnard using the 36 inch (91 cm) refractor telescope at Lick Observatory. It was the last planetary satellite to be discovered by direct visual observation (as opposed to photographically) and was the first new satellite of Jupiter since Galileo Galilei's discovery of the Galilean satellites in in 1610." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalthea_(moon)
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In 1894, with the help of William Pickering, Percival Lowell (a wealthy Bostonian) founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. In 1906, convinced he could resolve the conundrum of Uranus's orbit, he began an extensive project to search for a trans-Neptunian planet, which he named Planet X, a name previously used by Gabriel Dallet. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planets_beyond_Neptune#Planet_X
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"On November 8, 1895, German physics professor Wilhelm Röntgen stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard tubes and Crookes tubes and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on December 28, 1895 submitted it to Würzburg's Physical-Medical Society journal." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray#Discovery_by_R%C3%B6ntgen
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"Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials.These materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay#History_of_discovery
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"Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin's serious interest in airship development began in 1874, when he took inspiration from a lecture given by Heinrich von Stephan on the subject of "World Postal Services and Air Travel" to outline the basic principle of his later craft in a diary entry dated 25 March 1874." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeppelin
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"Over the past 100 years,applied scientists including Stodola (1903, 1927–1945),Pfleiderer (1952), Hawthorne (1964), Shepard (1956), Lakshminarayana (1996), and Japikse (many texts including citations), have educated young engineers in the fundamentals of turbomachinery. These understandings apply to all dynamic, continuous-flow, axisymmetric pumps, fans, blowers, and compressors in axial, mixed-flow and radial/centrifugal configurations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_compressor
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"Phoebe was discovered by William Henry Pickering on 17 March 1899 from photographic plates that had been taken starting on 16 August 1898 at the Boyden Observatory near Arequipa, Peru, by DeLisle Stewart.It was the first satellite to be discovered photographically." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoebe_(moon)
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"In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck reluctantly introduced the idea that energy is quantized in order to derive a formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body, called Planck's law, that included a Boltzmann distribution (applicable in the classical limit)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics
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"Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph industry in the late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the early 20th century. People were attracted to radio by the technical fascination it inspired, first in receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into broadcasting in the 1920s were only 'amateurs' in the period before World War I." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering#History
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"The equation is named after Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (Russian: Константин Циолковский) who independently derived it and published it in his 1903 work. The equation had been derived earlier by the British mathematician William Moore in 1810, and later published in a separate book in 1813" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation
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"According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI),the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, 4 miles (6.4 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on 17 December 1903." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_flying_machines#The_Wright_brothers
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"The German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects". In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog, but not its distance from the transmitter. He obtained a patent[6] for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar#First_experiments
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"It is the largest irregular satellite of Jupiter, with a diameter of at least 140 km (90 mi). It is the fifth largest Jovian satellite, after the four Galilean moons. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on 3 December 1904 and is named after the nymph Himalia, who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalia_(moon)
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"Elara /ˈɛlərə/ is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at Lick Observatory in 1905.It is the eighth-largest moon of Jupiter and is named after Elara, one of Zeus's lovers and the mother of the giant Tityos.Elara did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as Jupiter VII." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elara_(moon)
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"Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#Special_relativity
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"An early scientific work on the subject was George Bryan's Theory of the Stability of a Rigid Aeroplane published in 1906. Problems with torsional divergence plagued aircraft in the First World War and were solved largely by trial-and-error and ad-hoc stiffening of the wing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroelasticity#History
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"Cornu first built an unmanned experimental design powered by a 2 hp Buchet engine.His manned helicopter was powered by a 24 horsepower (18 kW) Antoinette engine.[3] He piloted this construction himself at Normandy, France on November 13, 1907."
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"Pasiphae /pəˈsɪfeɪ.iː/, formerly spelled Pasiphaë, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered in 1908 by Philibert Jacques Melotte and later named after the mythological Pasiphaë, wife of Minos and mother of the Minotaur from Greek legendThe moon was first spotted on a plate taken at the Royal Greenwich Observatory on the night of February 28, 1908." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasiphae_(moon)
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"In 1909, Theodor Wulf developed an electrometer, a device to measure the rate of ion production inside a hermetically sealed container, and used it to show higher levels of radiation at the top of the Eiffel Tower than at its base. However, his paper published in Physikalische Zeitschrift was not widely accepted." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray#Discovery
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"In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, working under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered.Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom#Discovery_of_the_nucleus
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"The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, abbreviated as H–R diagram, HR diagram or HRD, is a scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their stellar classifications or effective temperatures. The diagram was created independently in around 1910 by Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell, and represented a major step towards an understanding of stellar evolution." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram
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"Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War 1.[3] The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy August 1910." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics#History
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"In 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of Continental Drift This theory suggests that the shapes of continents and matching coastline geology between some continents indicates they were joined together in the past and formed a single landmass known as Pangaea; thereafter they separated and drifted like rafts over the ocean floor, currently reaching their present position." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century_in_science#Earth_science
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"The discovery of the neutron and its properties was central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics in the first half of the 20th century. Early in the century, Ernest Rutherford developed a crude model of the atom, based on the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. In this model, atoms had their mass and positive electric charge concentrated in a very small nucleus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron
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"The world's first patent for an underwater echo-ranging device was filed at the British Patent Office by English meteorologist Lewis Fry Richardson a month after the sinking of Titanic, and a German physicist Alexander Behm obtained a patent for an echo sounder in 1913." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar#History
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"Sinope /sɪˈnoʊpiː/ is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Lick Observatory in 1914 and is named after Sinope of Greek mythology." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinope_(moon)
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"World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global war that lasted from 1914 to 1918. Contemporaneously described as "the war to end all wars",it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I
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"The Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center[4] (ГКНПЦ им. М. В. Хру́ничева in Russian) is a Moscow-based manufacturer of spacecraft and space-launch systems, including the Proton and Rokot rockets, and the Russian modules of Mir and the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khrunichev_State_Research_and_Production_Space_Center
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"Daylight saving time, also daylight savings time or daylight time (United States and Canada) and summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks during warmer months so that darkness falls later each day according to the clock.George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation starting on April 30, 1916." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylight_saving_time
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"World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global war that lasted from 1914 to 1918. Contemporaneously described as "the war to end all wars", it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I
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"The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the Sun on the celestial sphere. The observations were performed in 1919 by Arthur Eddington, Frank Watson Dyson, and their collaborators during the total solar eclipse on May 29.The solar eclipse allowed the stars near the Sun to be observed. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens#History
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"The International Astronomical Union is an international association of professional astronomers, at the PhD level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy. Among other activities, it acts as the recognized authority for assigning designations and names to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union
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"Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tube radio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of electronic communication (early radio, telephone, and telegraph) were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting
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"In the 1920s, product improvement through the use of statistical process control was promoted by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Labs, around the time that Waloddi Weibull was working on statistical models for fatigue. The development of reliability engineering was here on a parallel path with quality. The modern use of the word reliability was defined by the U.S. military in the 1940s," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering
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"In 1920, the American zoologist E. Newton Harvey published a monograph, The Nature of Animal Light, summarizing early work on bioluminescence. Harvey notes that Aristotle mentions light produced by dead fish and flesh, and that both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder (in his Natural History) mention light from damp wood." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence#History
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"The Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel (Russian: Общество изучения межпланетных сообщений or OIMS) was founded in Moscow in May 1924.It was a spin-off of a military science society at theZhukovsky Airforce Academy,and was chaired by Grigory Kramarov.Its 200 charter members included important Soviet space-exploration and rocketry experts such as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky,Fridrikh Tsander, and Vladimir Vetchinkin. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Studies_of_Interplanetary_Travel
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"The Hubble sequence is a morphological classification scheme for galaxies invented by Edwin Hubble in 1926. Hubble's scheme divided regular galaxies into three broad classes – ellipticals, lenticulars and spirals – based on their visual appearance (originally on photographic plates). A fourth class contains galaxies with an irregular appearance." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_sequence
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"In 1920, Professor Robert Goddard of Clark University published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. In 1923, Hermann Oberth (1894–1989) published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("The Rocket into Planetary Space").Modern rockets originated in 1926 when Goddard attached a supersonic (de Laval) nozzle to the combustion chamber of a liquid-propellant rocket. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket#History
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The Big Bang theory is a cosmological model of the observable universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an expanding universe could be traced back in time to an originating single point, calling his theory that of the "primeval atom". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Big_Bang_theory
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"Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector. Russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode#Discoveries_and_early_devices
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"The Ente (German: duck) was the world’s first rocket-powered full-size aircraft. It was designed by Alexander Lippisch as a sailplane and first flown under power on June 11, 1928, piloted by Fritz Stamer." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippisch_Ente
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"Hubble went on to estimate the distances to 24 extra-galactic nebulae, using a variety of methods. In 1929 Hubble examined the relation between these distances and their radial velocities as determined from their redshifts. His estimated distances are now known to all be too small, by up to a factor of about 7." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble#Redshift_increases_with_distance
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"Georges Lemaître independently reached a similar conclusion to Friedmann on a theoretical basis, and also presented the first observational evidence for a linear relationship between distance to galaxies and their recessional velocity. Edwin Hubble observationally confirmed Lemaître's findings two years later. Assuming the cosmological principle, these findings would imply that all galaxies are moving away from each other." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe#History
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"Frequency modulation radio originated in the United States during the 1930s; the system was developed by the American electrical engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong. However, FM broadcasting did not become widespread, even in North America, until the 1960s." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcast_band
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"The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the derived unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI) and is defined as one cycle per second.The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 1930." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz#History
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"The Verein für Raumschiffahrt ("VfR", English: Society for Space Travel was a German amateur rocket association prior to World War II that included members outside Germany. The first successful VfR test firing with liquid fuel (five minutes) was performed by Max Valier at the Heylandt Works on January 25, 1930; and additional rocket experiments were conducted at a farm near Bernstadt, Saxony." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verein_f%C3%BCr_Raumschiffahrt
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"Pluto (minor planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is an icy dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It was the first and the largest Kuiper belt object to be discovered.Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and declared to be the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its status as a planet was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto
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"The first radio antenna used to identify an astronomical radio source was one built by Karl Guthe Jansky, an engineer with Bell Telephone Laboratories, in 1932. Jansky was assigned the job of identifying sources of static that might interfere with radio telephone service. Jansky's antenna was an array of dipoles and reflectors designed to receive short wave radio signals at a frequency of 20.5 MHz"
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"The first detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was in 1932, when Karl Jansky at Bell Telephone Laboratories observed radiation coming from the Milky Way." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy
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"GIRD (Group for the Study of Reactive Motion) launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25, 1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_space_program#Origins
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"The boundaries of the Eastern Time Zone have moved westward since the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) took over time-zone management from railroads in 1938." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone
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"Jointly with Lise Meitner and his pupil and assistant Fritz Strassmann (1902–1980), Otto Hahn furthered the research begun by Enrico Fermi and his team in 1934 when they bombarded uranium with neutrons. Until 1938, it was believed that the elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (known as transuranium elements) arose when uranium atoms were bombarded with neutrons." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Hahn#Discovery_of_nuclear_fission_(1938)
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"Lysithea /laɪˈsɪθiə/ is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson in 1938 at Mount Wilson Observatory and is named after the mythological Lysithea, daughter of Oceanus and one of Zeus' lovers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysithea_(moon)
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"Carme did not receive its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as Jupiter XI. It was sometimes called "Pan" between 1955 and 1975 (Pan is now the name of a satellite of Saturn)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carme_(moon)
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"World War II (often abbreviated as WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
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"It is an autonomous research agency of the Government of Spain responsible for the state aerospace, aeronautics, hydrodynamics, and defense and security technologies research. The INTA was established in 1942, as the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeronáutica (National Institute of Aeronautics), and it was integrated in the Ministry of the Air. It has its headquarters in Torrejón de Ardoz, near Madrid." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_T%C3%A9cnica_Aeroespacial
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"Hedy Lamarr (/ˈheɪdi/), born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler (November 9, 1914[a] – January 19, 2000), was an Austrian-American actress, inventor, and film producer. She was part of 30 films in an acting career spanning 28 years, and co-invented an early version of frequency-hopping spread spectrum." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr#Frequency-hopping_spread_spectrum
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"A modern pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3, 1942, and it began operation on September 6, 1944, against Paris, followed by an attack on London two days later. By the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, more than 3,000 V-2s had been launched" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile#History
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"It was discovered by Daniel du Toit at the Boyden Observatory, South Africa on 16 May 1944, who estimated its brightness at magnitude 10. Other observers estimated magnitude 11 and 12.5. Its next return date was calculated to have a perihelion date of 10 April 1959 but it was not discovered." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66P/du_Toit
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"World War II (often abbreviated as WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
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"The White Sands rocket (official name V-2 No. 13) was a modified V-2 rocket that became the first man-made object to take a photograph of the Earth from outer space. Launched on 24 October 1946, at the White Sands Missile Range in White Sands, New Mexico, the rocket reached a maximum altitude of 65 mi (105 km)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_No._13
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"In 1947, the first true mesons, the charged pions, were found by the collaboration of Cecil Powell, César Lattes, Giuseppe Occhialini, et al., at the University of Bristol, in England. Since the advent of particle accelerators had not yet come, high-energy subatomic particles were only obtainable from atmospheric cosmic rays." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pion#History
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"The point-contact transistor was the first type of transistor to be successfully demonstrated. It was developed by research scientists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Laboratories in December 1947. They worked in a group led by physicist William Shockley." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-contact_transistor
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"In 1947, Bell Labs was the first to propose a cellular radio telephone network. The primary innovation was the development of a network of small overlapping cell sites supported by a call switching infrastructure that tracks users as they move through a network and passes their calls from one site to another without dropping the connection. In 1956, the MTA system was launched in Sweden." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony#History
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"The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, after World War II. The period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War
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"While the device was constructed a week earlier, Brattain's notes describe the first demonstration to higher-ups at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birthdate of the transistor. What is now known as the "p–n–p point-contact germanium transistor" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device#The_first_transistor
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"A hologram is a physical recording of an interference pattern which uses diffraction to reproduce a three-dimensional light field, resulting in an image which retains the depth, parallax, and other properties of the original scene.Holography is the science and practice of making holograms. A hologram is a photographic recording of a light field, rather than an image formed by a lens." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography
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"Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary[1] approach for exploring regulatory systems—their structures, constraints, and possibilities. Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
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"Miranda was discovered on 16 February 1948 by planetary astronomer Gerard Kuiper using the McDonald Observatory's 82-inch (2,080 mm) Otto Struve Telescope. Its motion around Uranus was confirmed on 1 March 1948. It was the first satellite of Uranus discovered in nearly 100 years." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_(moon)
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"The sound barrier or sonic barrier is the sudden increase in aerodynamic drag and other undesirable effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches the speed of sound. The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on April 26, 1948." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_barrier#The_first_''official''_aircraft_to_break_the_sound_barrier
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"The very first time a stored-program computer held a piece of software in electronic memory and executed it successfully, was 11 am 21 June 1948, at the University of Manchester, on the Manchester Baby computer. It was written by Tom Kilburn, and calculated the highest factor of the integer 2^18 = 262,144." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_software#Early_days_of_computer_software_(1948%E2%80%931979)
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"Dorothy Johnson Vaughan (September 20, 1910 – November 10, 2008) was an American mathematician and human computer who worked for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and NASA, at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. In 1949, she became acting supervisor of the West Area Computers, the first African-American woman to supervise a group of staff at the center." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Vaughan
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"Nereid /ˈnɪəriːɪd/, or Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune. Of all known moons in the Solar System, it has the most eccentric orbit. It was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered, by Gerard Kuiper in 1949." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nereid_(moon)
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"The Digital Revolution (also known as the 3rd Industrial Revolution) is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Revolution
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"Parabolic flight as a way of simulating weightlessness was first proposed by the German aerospace engineer Fritz Haber and the German physicist Heinz Haber in 1950. Both had been brought to the US after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced-gravity_aircraft#History
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"The modern discipline of aeroacoustics can be said to have originated with the first publication of Lighthill in the early 1950s, when noise generation associated with the jet engine was beginning to be placed under scientific scrutiny." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroacoustics#History
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"In 1932 Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik postulated that long-period comets originated in an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System.[9] Dutch astronomer Jan Oort independently revived the idea in 1950 as a means to resolve a paradox" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud
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"The WAC Corporal was the first sounding rocket developed in the United States.The Corporal program was started by the US Army's Ordnance and California Institute of Technology organization (ORDCIT) in June 1944 with the ultimate goal of developing a military ballistic missile by developing the technology necessary." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAC_Corporal
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"Video technology was first developed for mechanical television systems, which were quickly replaced by cathode ray tube (CRT) television systems, but several new technologies for video display devices have since been invented. Video was originally exclusively a live technology. Charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder (VTR)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video#Analog_video
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"Ananke /əˈnæŋkiː/ is a retrograde irregular moon of Jupiter. It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Mount Wilson Observatory in 1951 and is named after the mythological Ananke, the personification of Necessity, and the mother of the Moirai (Fates) by Zeus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ananke_(moon)
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"A maser (/ˈmeɪzər/, an acronym for microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission. The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger at Columbia University in 1953. Townes, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser
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"In 1954, the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) created the first version of the International System of Units. The six base units that they used were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, and candela. The seventh base unit, the mole, was added in 1971" https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units
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"The convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe.[1] The acronym CERN originally represented the French words for Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Council for Nuclear Research), which was a provisional council for building the laboratory, established by 12 European governments in 1952." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN#History
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"The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen and Jack Parry in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock#History
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"The concept of open access to scientific data was institutionally established with the formation of the World Data Center system (now the World Data System), in preparation for the International Geophysical Year of 1957–1958." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_data
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"It is a spaceport located in an area of southern Kazakhstan leased to Russia. The Cosmodrome is the world's first and largest operational space launch facility.[1] The spaceport is located in the desert steppe of Baikonur, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) east of the Aral Sea and north of the river Syr Darya. It is near the Tyuratam railway station and is about 90 metres (300 ft) above sea level." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome
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"The electron neutrino is a subatomic lepton elementary particle which has zero net electric charge. Together with the electron it forms the first generation of leptons, hence the name electron neutrino. It was first hypothesized by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930, to account for missing momentum and missing energy in beta decay, and was discovered in 1956 by a team led by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_neutrino
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"Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs were the dominant secondary storage device for general-purpose computers beginning in the early 1960s. HDDs maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers, though personal computing devices produced in large volume, like cell phones and tablets, rely on flash products."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive#History
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"Space debris began to accumulate in Earth orbit immediately with the first launch of an artificial satellite into orbit in 1957. After the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) began compiling a database (the Space Object Catalog) of all known rocket launches and objects reaching orbit: satellites, protective shields and upper-stages of launch vehicles." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris#History
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"The Casio Computer Company, in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology, and was built into a desk." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator#Development_of_electronic_calculators
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The early period of space exploration.
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"An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres (3,400 mi) primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery (delivering one or more thermonuclear warheads)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile
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"The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957, orbiting for three weeks before its batteries died, then silently for two more months before falling back into the atmosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1
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"It was a Soviet space dog who became one of the first animals in space, and the first animal to orbit the Earth. Laika, a stray mongrel from the streets of Moscow, was selected to be the occupant of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2 that was launched into outer space on 3 November 1957." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laika
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"The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958,[4] considering the Earth's atmosphere and outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft (aero) and spacecraft (space) under the newly coined term aerospace." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering#History
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"When the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid in 1858 by Cyrus West Field, it operated for only three weeks bsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 were more successful. Although a telephone cable was discussed starting in the 1920s,to be practical it needed a number of technological advances which did not arrive until the 1940s. Starting in 1927, transatlantic telephone service was radio-based." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantic_communications_cable
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"The Pioneer programs were two series of United States uncrewed space missions for lunar and planetary exploration. The first program, which ran from 1958 to 1960, unsuccessfully attempted to send spacecraft to orbit the Moon, successfully sent one spacecraft to fly by the Moon, and successfully sent one spacecraft to investigate interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_program
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"Mary Jackson (née Winston, April 9, 1921 – February 11, 2005) was an American mathematician and aerospace engineer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which in 1958 was succeeded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). She worked at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, for most of her career. She started as a computer at the segregated West Area Computing division in 1951." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Jackson_(engineer)
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"Kristian Birkeland, Carl Størmer, and Nicholas Christofilos had investigated the possibility of trapped charged particles before the Space Age.[4] Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 confirmed the existence of the belt in early 1958 under James Van Allen at the University of Iowa. The trapped radiation was first mapped by Explorer 4, Pioneer 3 and Luna 1" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt
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"The Juno I was a four-stage American booster rocket which launched America's first satellite, Explorer 1, in 1958. A member of the Redstone rocket family, it was derived from the Jupiter-C sounding rocket. It is commonly confused with the Juno II launch vehicle, which was derived from the PGM-19 Jupiter medium-range ballistic missile." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_I
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"Explorer 1 was the first satellite launched by the United States and was part of the U.S. participation in the International Geophysical Year. The mission followed the first two satellites the previous year; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 and 2, beginning the Cold War Space Race between the two nations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_1
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"It was an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth orbital satellite to be successfully launched (following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1). Vanguard 1 was the first satellite to have solar electric power. Although communication with the satellite was lost in 1964, it remains the oldest man-made object still in orbit, together with the upper stage of its launch vehicle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_1
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"It was a Soviet satellite launched on 15 May 1958 from Baikonur Cosmodrome by a modified R-7/SS-6 ICBM. The scientific satellite carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research of the upper atmosphere and near space."
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"Fourteen pilots were directly involved with the X-15, although only twelve actually flew the vehicles. There was no formal selection process, since everyone chosen was already a qualified test pilot.Scott Crossfield and Alvin White were the prime and backup North American Aviation test pilots who first became involved with the project." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronauts_by_year_of_selection#1958
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"It was instrumented by Dr. James van Allen's group. The Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency had initially planned two satellites for the purposes of studying the Van Allen radiation belts and the effects of nuclear explosions upon these belts (and the Earth's magnetosphere in general), however Explorer 4 was the only such satellite launched as the other, Explorer 5, suffered launch failure." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_4
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"The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the United States Federal Government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and space research. NASA was established in 1958, succeeding the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency was to have a distinctly civilian orientation, encouraging peaceful applications in space science." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
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"An early highlight of the Space Race, its goal was to put a man into Earth orbit and return him safely, ideally before the Soviet Union. Taken over from the US Air Force by the newly created civilian space agency NASA, it conducted twenty uncrewed developmental flights (some using animals), and six successful flights by astronauts." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mercury
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"Pioneer 1 was an American space probe, the first under the auspices of NASA, which was launched by a Thor-Able rocket on 11 October 1958. It was intended to orbit the Moon and make scientific measurements, but due to a guidance error failed to achieve lunar orbit and was ultimately destroyed upon reentering Earth's atmosphere. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_1
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"This spacecraft was intended as a lunar probe, but failed to go past the Moon and into a heliocentric orbit as planned, but did reach an altitude of 102,360 km before falling back to Earth. The revised spacecraft objectives were to measure radiation in the outer Van Allen radiation belt using two Geiger-Müller tubes and to test the trigger mechanism for a lunar photographic experiment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_3
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"UNOOSA is tasked with promoting the peaceful use and exploration of space through international cooperation. Part of the United Nations Secretariat, it works with any of the 193 UN Member States to establish or strengthen the legal and regulatory frameworks for space activities, and assists developing countries in using space science and technology for sustainable socioeconomic development." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs
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"The first stratospheric space dive was in 1959 when Colonel Joseph William Kittinger II (born July 27, 1928 in Tampa, Florida, United States) a former command pilot, career military officer and retired Colonel in the United States Air Force dived from a high-altitude balloon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diving#History
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"The potential problem of lunar and planetary contamination was first raised at the International Astronautical Federation VIIth Congress in Rome in 1956.In 1959, planetary protection was transferred to the newly formed Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). COSPAR in 1964 issued Resolution 26 affirming that:.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_protection#History
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"The basis for digital camera image sensors is metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology, which originates from the invention of the MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor). The NMOS active-pixel sensor was later invented by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985, which led to the development of the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) by Eric Fossum's team at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1993." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camera
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"Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC chip. It was a new variety of integrated circuit, more practical than Kilby's implementation. Noyce's design was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Noyce's monolithic IC put all components on a chip of silicon and connected them with copper lines." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit#First_integrated_circuits
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"The Luna 8K72 vehicles were carrier rockets used by the Soviet Union for nine space probe launch attempts in the Luna programme between 23 September 1958 and 16 April 1960" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_(rocket)
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"A trans-lunar injection (TLI) is a propulsive maneuver used to set a spacecraft on a trajectory that will cause it to arrive at the Moon. The first space probe to attempt TLI was the Soviet Union's Luna 1 on January 2, 1959 which was designed to impact the Moon. The burn however didn't go exactly as planned and the spacecraft missed the Moon by more than three times its radius and was sent into a heliocentric orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-lunar_injection
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"Luna 1, also known as Mechta (Russian: Мечта [mʲɪt͡ɕˈta], lit.: Dream), E-1 No.4 and First Lunar Rover,[5] was the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Earth's Moon, and the first spacecraft to be placed in heliocentric orbit. Intended as an impactor, Luna 1 was launched as part of the Soviet Luna programme in 1959" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_1
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" Vanguard 2 was the first weather satellite.The satellite was designed to measure cloud-cover distribution over the daylight portion of its orbit, for a period of 19 days, and to provide information on the density of the atmosphere for the lifetime of its orbit (about 300 years)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_2
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"Pioneer 4 was an American spin-stabilized unmanned spacecraft launched as part of the Pioneer program on a lunar flyby trajectory and into a heliocentric orbit making it the first probe of the United States to escape from the Earth's gravity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_4
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"The North American X-15 was a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15
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"It was an American satellite launched on August 7, 1959. It was a small, spheroidal satellite designed to study trapped radiation of various energies, galactic cosmic rays, geomagnetism, radio propagation in the upper atmosphere, and the flux of micrometeorites. It also tested a scanning device designed for photographing the Earth's cloud cover, and transmitted the first pictures of Earth via satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_6
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"Originally named the Second Soviet Cosmic Rocket and nicknamed Lunik 2 in contemporaneous media, was the sixth of the Soviet Union's Luna programme spacecraft launched to the Moon, E-1 No.7." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_2
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"The satellite was launched from the Eastern Test Range into a geocentric orbit. The objectives of the flight were to measure the Earth's magnetic field, the solar X-ray radiation and its effects on the Earth's atmosphere, and the near-Earth micrometeoroid environment. Instrumentation included a proton magnetometer, X-ray ionization chambers, and various micrometeoroid detectors." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard_3
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"Luna 3 was a Soviet spacecraft launched in 1959 as part of the Luna programme. It was the first-ever mission to photograph the far side of the Moon and the third Soviet space probe to be sent to the neighborhood of the Moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_3
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"It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux, trapped energetic particles, and heavy primary cosmic rays. Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration, molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_7
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"The Ranger program was a series of unmanned space missions by the United States in the 1960s whose objective was to obtain the first close-up images of the surface of the Moon. The Ranger spacecraft were designed to take images of the lunar surface, transmitting those images to Earth until the spacecraft were destroyed upon impact." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_program
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"A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser" originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser#History
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"It is a Russian training facility responsible for training cosmonauts for their space missions. It is in Star City of Moscow Oblast, a name which may refer to the facility itself or to its grounds. Military doctor Colonel Yevgeny Karpov was appointed as the first chief of the cosmonaut training centre or Tsentr Podgotovki Kosmonavtov (TsPK) on 24 February 1960." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center
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"It was a spin-stabilized space probe in the NASA Pioneer program used to investigate interplanetary space between the orbits of Earth and Venus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_5
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"TIROS-1 was the first successful low-Earth orbital weather satellite, and the first of a series of Television Infrared Observation Satellites.The TIROS-1 spacecraft was launched by NASA and partners at 06:40 EST on 1 April 1960, from Cape Canaveral, Florida, in the United States. Mission partners were NASA, the U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory, RCA, the U.S. Weather Bureau, and the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIROS-1
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"It was the first test flight of the Soviet Vostok programme, and the first Vostok spacecraft. It was launched on May 15, 1960. Though Korabl-Sputnik 1 was unmanned, it was a precursor to the first human spaceflight, Vostok 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korabl-Sputnik_1
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"Vostok (Russian: Восток, translated as "East") was a family of rockets derived from the Soviet R-7 Semyorka ICBM and was designed for the human spaceflight programme. This family of rockets launched the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) and the first crewed spacecraft (Vostok) in human history. It was a subset of the R-7 family of rockets." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_(rocket_family)
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"Project Echo was the first passive communications satellite experiment. Each of the two American spacecraft, launched in 1960 and 1964, was a metalized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals. Communication signals were bounced off them from one point on Earth to another." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Echo
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"It was a Soviet artificial satellite, and the third test flight of the Vostok spacecraft. It was the first spaceflight to send animals into orbit and return them safely back to Earth. Launched on 19 August 1960, it paved the way for the first human orbital flight, Vostok 1, which was launched less than eight months later." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korabl-Sputnik_2
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"Eugene Shoemaker is credited with bringing geologic principles to planetary mapping and creating the branch of planetary science in the early 1960s, the Astrogeology Research Program, within the United States Geological Survey. He made important contributions to the field and the study of impact craters, Selenography (study of the Moon), asteroids, and comets." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_geology
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"Mars 1M was a series of two unmanned spacecraft which were used in the first Soviet missions to explore Mars. They were the earliest missions of the Mars program. The Western media dubbed the spacecraft "Marsnik", a portmanteau of Mars and Sputnik." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_1M
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"The CSM was developed and built for NASA by North American Aviation starting in November 1961. It was initially designed to land on the Moon atop a landing rocket stage and return all three astronauts on a direct-ascent mission, which would not use a separate lunar module, and thus had no provisions for docking with another spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_command_and_service_module#Command_module_(CM)
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Lidar (/ˈlaɪdɑːr/, also LIDAR, LiDAR, and LADAR) is a method for measuring distances (ranging) by illuminating the target with laser light and measuring the reflection with a sensor. Under the direction of Malcolm Stitch, the Hughes Aircraft Company introduced the first lidar-like system in 1961,shortly after the invention of the laser." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidar
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"Frances "Poppy" Northcutt (born August 10, 1943) is a Texas attorney who began her career as a "computress" and then an engineer for the technical staff on NASA's Apollo Program during the space race. She was the first female engineer to work in NASA's Mission Control during Apollo 8." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Northcutt
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"Syncom (for "synchronous communication satellite") started as a 1961 NASA program for active geosynchronous communication satellites, all of which were developed and manufactured by Hughes Space and Communications. Syncom 2, launched in 1963, was the world's first geosynchronous communications satellite. Syncom 3, launched in 1964, was the world's first geostationary satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncom
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"In February 1961 NASA awarded MIT a contract for preliminary design study of a guidance and navigation system for Apollo. MIT and the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors Corp. were awarded the joint contract for design and production of the Apollo Guidance and Navigation systems for the Command Module and the Lunar Module." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system#Guidance_in_human_spaceflight
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"Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) was the penultimate test flight of the Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle prior to the first manned American space mission in Project Mercury. It was launched at 16:55 UTC on January 31, 1961 from LC-5 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. Mercury spacecraft No. 5 carried a chimpanzee named Ham on a suborbital flight, landing in the Atlantic Ocean 16 minutes and 39 seconds after launch." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_2
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"The first spacecraft to fly past Venus, as part of the Soviet Union's Venera programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_1
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"The first human in space was Yuri Gagarin, who flew the Vostok 1 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet Union on 12 April 1961 as part of the Vostok program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin
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"The Vostok (Russian: Восток, translated as "East") was a type of spacecraft built by the Soviet Union. The first human spaceflight was accomplished with Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_(spacecraft)
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"Mercury-Redstone 3, or Freedom 7, was the first United States human spaceflight, on May 5, 1961, piloted by astronaut Alan Shepard. It was the first crewed flight of Project Mercury. The project had the ultimate objective of putting an astronaut into orbit around the Earth and return him safely." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_3
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"Vostok 2 (Russian: Восток-2, Orient 2 or East 2) was a Soviet space mission which carried cosmonaut Gherman Titov into orbit for a full day on August 6, 1961 to study the effects of a more prolonged period of weightlessness on the human body." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_2
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"OSCAR I (aka OSCAR 1) is the first amateur radio satellite launched by Project OSCAR into low Earth orbit. OSCAR I was launched December 12, 1961, by a Thor-DM21 Agena B launcher from Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc, California. The satellite, a rectangular box (30 x 25 x 12 cm) weighing 10 kg., was launched as a secondary payload (ballast) for Corona 9029, also known as Discoverer 36, the eighth and final launch of a KH-3 satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSCAR_1
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"The National Centre for Space Studies (CNES) (French: Centre national d'études spatiales) is the French government space agency (administratively, a "public administration with industrial and commercial purpose"). Its headquarters are located in central Paris and it is under the supervision of the French Ministries of Defence and Research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNES
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"Morton Heilig wrote in the 1950s of an "Experience Theatre" that could encompass all the senses in an effective manner, thus drawing the viewer into the onscreen activity. He built a prototype of his vision dubbed the Sensorama in 1962, along with five short films to be displayed in it while engaging multiple senses (sight, sound, smell, and touch)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality#History
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"The Mariner program was a 10-mission program conducted by the American space agency NASA in conjunction with Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The program launched a series of robotic interplanetary probes, from 1962 to 1973, designed to investigate Mars, Venus and Mercury." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_program
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"The European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere, commonly referred to as the European Southern Observatory (ESO), is a 16-nation intergovernmental research organisation for ground-based astronomy. Created in 1962, ESO has provided astronomers with state-of-the-art research facilities and access to the southern sky."
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"Mercury-Atlas 6 (MA-6) was the first American orbital spaceflight, which took place on February 20, 1962. Piloted by astronaut John Glenn and operated by NASA as part of Project Mercury, it was the fifth human spaceflight, preceded by Soviet orbital flights Vostok 1 and 2 and American sub-orbital flights Mercury-Redstone 3 and 4." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas_6
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"The Orbiting Solar Observatory (abbreviated OSO) Program was the name of a series of American space telescopes primarily intended to study the Sun, though they also included important non-solar experiments. Eight were launched successfully into low Earth orbit by NASA between 1962 and 1975 using Delta rockets." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Solar_Observatory
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"Kosmos (Russian: Ко́смос, IPA: [ˈkozməs], Cosmos) is a designation given to many satellites operated by the Soviet Union and subsequently Russia. Kosmos 1, the first spacecraft to be given a Kosmos designation, was launched on 16 March 1962." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos_(satellite)
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"Ariel 1 (also known as UK-1 and S-55), was the first British satellite, and the first satellite in the Ariel programme. Its launch in 1962 made the United Kingdom the third country to operate a satellite, after the Soviet Union and the United States. It was constructed in both the UK and the United States by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and SERC, under an agreement reached as the result of political discussions in 1959 and 1960." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_1
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"Ranger 4 was a spacecraft of the Ranger program, launched in 1962. It was designed to transmit pictures of the lunar surface to Earth stations during a period of 10 minutes of flight prior to crashing upon the Moon, to rough-land a seismometer capsule on the Moon, to collect gamma-ray data in flight, to study radar reflectivity of the lunar surface, and to continue testing of the Ranger program for development of lunar and interplanetary spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_4
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"The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) DMSP was initially known as Program 35. The first successful launch of a Program 35 spacecraft used a Scout X-2 rocket lifting off from Point Arguello near Vandenberg Air Force Base on August 23, 1962.This was P35-2; the earlier P35-1 launch on May 24, 1962 had failed to reach orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Meteorological_Satellite_Program#Launch_history
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"It was the satellite that allowed the first live broadcast of television images between the United States and Europe. It remained active for only 7 months, a much shorter service life than today's artificial satellites. Although it no longer works, it is still in Earth orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telstar_1
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"Mariner 1 was the first spacecraft of the American Mariner program, designed for a planetary flyby of Venus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_1
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"Vostok 3 (Russian: Восток-3, Orient 3 or East 3) was a spaceflight of the Soviet space program intended to determine the ability of the human body to function in conditions of weightlessness and test the endurance of the Vostok 3KA spacecraft over longer flights. Cosmonaut Andriyan Nikolayev orbited the Earth 64 times over nearly four days in space, August 11–15, 1962, a feat which would not be matched by NASA until the Gemini program (1965–1966)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_3
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"Vostok 4 (Russian: Восток-4, Orient 4 or East 4) was a mission in the Soviet space program. It was launched in August 1962, a day after Vostok 3 with cosmonaut Pavel Popovich on board—the first time that more than one crewed spacecraft were in orbit at the same time. The two Vostok capsules came within 6.5 km (4.0 mi) of one another and ship-to-ship radio contact was established." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_4
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"An American space probe to Venus, was the first robotic space probe to conduct a successful planetary encounter. The first successful spacecraft in the NASA Mariner program, it was a simplified version of the Block I spacecraft of the Ranger program and an exact copy of Mariner 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_2
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"The first satellite constructed by a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Canada was the fourth country to operate a satellite, as the British Ariel 1, constructed in the United States by NASA, preceded Alouette 1 by five months." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alouette_1
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"The Arecibo Observatory is a radio telescope in the municipality of Arecibo, Puerto Rico. As of 2018, the observatory is operated by University of Central Florida, Yang Enterprises and UMET, under cooperative agreement with the US National Science Foundation (NSF)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_Observatory
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"Sketchpad (a.k.a. Robot Draftsman) was a computer program written by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 in the course of his PhD thesis, for which he received the Turing Award in 1988, and the Kyoto Prize in 2012. It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction (HCI). Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design (CAD) programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketchpad
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"JoAnn Hardin Morgan (December 4, 1940) is an American aerospace engineer who was a trailblazer in the United States space flight program as the first female engineer at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) John F. Kennedy Space Center and the first woman to serve as a senior executive at Kennedy Space Center. For her work at NASA, Morgan was honored by U.S. President Bill Clinton as a Meritorious Executive in 1995 and 1998." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JoAnn_H._Morgan
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"COMSAT Corporation was created by the Communications Satellite Act of 1962 and incorporated as a publicly traded company in 1963. The primary goal of COMSAT was to serve as a public, federally funded corporation intended to develop a commercial and international satellite communication system press. Although the corporation was government regulated, it was equally owned by some major communications corporations and independent investors." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMSAT
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"LaserDisc (abbreviated as LD) is a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium, initially licensed, sold and marketed as MCA DiscoVision (also known simply as “DiscoVision”) in the United States in 1978.Optical video recording technology, using a transparent disc, was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1963 (and patented in 1970 and 1990)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaserDisc
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"The Compact Cassette or Musicassette (MC), also commonly called the cassette tape, audio cassette, or simply tape or cassette, is an analog magnetic tape recording format for audio recording and playback. It was developed by Philips in Hasselt, Belgium, and introduced in September 1963." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape
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"Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, proposed the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963. Nishizawa invented the PIN diode and the static induction transistor, both of which contributed to the development of optical fiber communications." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#History
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"Syncom 1 was intended to be the first geosynchronous communications satellite. It was launched on February 14, 1963 with the Delta B #16 launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral, but was lost on the way to geosynchronous orbit due to an electronics failure." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncom#Syncom_1
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"Born 6 March 1937) is a member of the Russian State Duma, engineer, and former cosmonaut. She is the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963. She orbited the Earth 48 times, spent almost three days in space, and remains the only woman to have been on a solo space mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova
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"Widely known as the "father of the geosynchronous satellite", Harold Rosen, an engineer at Hughes Aircraft Company, invented the first operational geosynchronous satellite, Syncom 2. It was launched on a Delta rocket B booster from Cape Canaveral July 26, 1963." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous_satellite#History
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"Vela was the name of a group of satellites developed as the Vela Hotel element of Project Vela by the United States to detect nuclear detonations to monitor compliance with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty by the Soviet Union." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vela_(satellite)
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"National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Indonesian: Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional or LAPAN) is the Indonesian government space agency. It was established on November 27, 1963, by former Indonesian president Sukarno after one year's existence of an informal space agency organization. LAPAN is responsible for long-term civilian and military aerospace research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Space
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"The Kardashev scale is a method of measuring a civilization's level of technological advancement based on the amount of energy they are able to use. The measure was proposed by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev in 1964." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale
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"Bell's theorem proves that quantum physics is incompatible with local hidden variable theories. It was introduced by physicist John Stewart Bell in a 1964 paper titled "On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox", referring to a 1935 thought experiment that Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen used to argue that quantum physics is an "incomplete" theory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem
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"BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)[1] is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use. The original version was designed by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz and released at Dartmouth College in 1964. They wanted to enable students in fields other than science and mathematics to use computers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC
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"Ranger 6 was a lunar probe in the Ranger program, a robotic spacecraft series launched by NASA in the early and mid-1960s to obtain the first close-up images of the Moon's surface. It was designed to achieve a lunar impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_6
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"Zond 1 was a spacecraft of the Soviet Zond program. It was the second Soviet research spacecraft to reach Venus, although communications had failed by that time. It carried a 90 cm spherical landing capsule, containing experiments for chemical analysis of the atmosphere, gamma-ray measurements of surface rocks, a photometer, temperature and pressure gauges, and a motion/rocking sensor in case it landed in water." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_1
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"Gemini 1 was the first mission in NASA's Gemini program. An uncrewed test flight of the Gemini spacecraft, its main objectives were to test the structural integrity of the new spacecraft and modified Titan II launch vehicle. It was also the first test of the new tracking and communication systems for the Gemini program and provided training for the ground support crews for the first manned missions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_1
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"The Guiana Space Centre (French: Centre Spatial Guyanais (CSG) ) is a French and European spaceport to the northwest of Kourou in French Guiana, a region of France in South America. Operational since 1968, it is particularly suitable as a location for a spaceport." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiana_Space_Centre
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"Ranger 7 was the first space probe of the United States to successfully transmit close images of the lunar surface back to Earth. It was also the first completely successful flight of the Ranger program. Launched on July 28, 1964, Ranger 7 was designed to achieve a lunar-impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_7
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"The first geostationary communication satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964, with a Delta D launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite, in orbit approximately above the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo to the United States." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosynchronous_satellite#History
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"Intelsat Corporation (formerly INTEL-SAT, INTELSAT, Intelsat) is a communications satellite services provider. Originally formed as International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO, or INTELSAT), from 1964 to 2001 it was an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of communications satellites providing international broadcast services." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelsat
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"Voskhod 1 (Russian: Восход-1; Восход is Russian for Sunrise) was the seventh crewed Soviet space flight. In October 1964 it achieved a number of "firsts" in the history of crewed spaceflight, being the first space flight to carry more than one crewman into orbit, the first flight without the use of spacesuits, and the first to carry either an engineer or a physician into outer space. It also set a crewed spacecraft altitude record of 336 km (209 mi)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voskhod_1
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"Mariner 3 (together with Mariner 4 known as Mariner-Mars 1964) was one of two identical deep-space probes designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) for NASA's Mariner-Mars 1964 project that were intended to conduct close-up (flyby) scientific observations of the planet Mars and transmit information on interplanetary space and the space surrounding Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_3
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"It is a Belgian federal scientific research institute. Created in 1964, its main tasks are research and public service in space aeronomy, which is the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere of the Earth and other planets, and of outer space. The scientists rely on ground-based, balloon-, air- or space-borne instruments and computer models." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Institute_for_Space_Aeronomy
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"Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world largely changed the scientific community's view of life on Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_4
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"Zond 2 was a Soviet space probe, a member of the Zond program, and was the sixth Soviet spacecraft to attempt a flyby of Mars.It was launched on November 30, 1964 at 13:12 UTC onboard Molniya 8K78 launch vehicle from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, Russia. The spacecraft was intended to survey Mars but lost communication before arrival." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_2
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"San Marco 1, also known as San Marco A, was the first Italian satellite. Built in-house by the Italian Space Research Commission (Italian: Commissione per le Ricerche Spaziali, CRS) on behalf of the National Research Council, it was the first of five as part of the Italian-US San Marco programme.The primary mission of the San Marco series was to conduct ionospheric (upper-atmosphere) research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marco_1
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"The 1965 landmark report "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment" by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Science Advisory Committee warned of the harmful effects of fossil fuel emissions, and also mentioned "deliberately bringing about countervailing climatic changes," including "raising the albedo, or reflectivity, of the Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering#History
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"Thomas Dale Brock (born September 10, 1926) is an American microbiologist known for his discovery of hyperthermophiles living in hot springs at Yellowstone National Park. In the late 1960s, Brock discovered high-temperature bacteria living in the Great Fountain region of Yellowstone, and with his colleague Hudson Freeze, they isolated a sample they named Thermus aquaticus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_D._Brock
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"A Molniya orbit (Russian: Молния, IPA: [ˈmolnʲɪjə] (About this soundlisten), "Lightning") is a type of satellite orbit designed to provide communications and remote sensing coverage over high latitudes. It is a highly elliptical orbit with an inclination of 63.4 degrees, an argument of perigee of 270 degrees, and an orbital period of approximately half a sidereal day." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_orbit#History
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"Ranger 8 was a lunar probe in the Ranger program, a robotic spacecraft series launched by NASA in the early-to-mid-1960s to obtain the first close-up images of the Moon's surface. These pictures helped select landing sites for Apollo missions and were used for scientific study. During its 1965 mission, Ranger 8 transmitted 7,137 lunar surface photographs before it crashed into the Moon as planned." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_8
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"He was a Soviet and Russian cosmonaut, Air Force major general, writer, and artist. On 18 March 1965, he became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the capsule during the Voskhod 2 mission for 12 minutes and 9 seconds" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Leonov
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"Ranger 9 was a Lunar probe, launched in 1965 by NASA. It was designed to achieve a lunar impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact. The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras—two wide-angle (channel F, cameras A and B) and four narrow-angle (channel P)—to accomplish these objectives." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_9
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"This was the ninth crewed US spaceflight (including two X-15 flights over 100 kilometers), and the 17th world human spaceflight including eight Soviet flights. It was also the final crewed flight controlled from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida, before mission control functions were shifted to a new control center located at the newly opened Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_3
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"Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird for the proverb "The early bird catches the worm") was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit, on April 6, 1965.It was built by the Space and Communications Group of Hughes Aircraft Company (later Hughes Space and Communications Company, and now Boeing Satellite Systems) for COMSAT, which activated it on June 28, 1965." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelsat_I
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"The Molniya (Russian: Молния, IPA: [ˈmolnʲɪjə] (About this soundlisten), "Lightning") series satellites are military and communications satellites launched by the Soviet Union from 1965 to 2004.The first launch took place on June 4, 1964 and ended in failure when the 8K78 booster core stage lost thrust 287 seconds into launch due to a jammed servo motor.The first operational satellite, Molniya 1-1, was successfully launched on April 23, 1965." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)
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"Edward Higgins "Ed" White II (November 14, 1930 – January 27, 1967) (Lt Col, USAF) was an American aeronautical engineer, U.S. Air Force officer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut.White was selected as one of the second group of astronauts. He was assigned as pilot of Gemini 4 alongside command pilot James McDivitt. On June 3, 1965, White became the first American to walk in space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_White_(astronaut)
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"Zond 3 was a 1965 space probe which performed a flyby of the Moon's far side, taking a number of quality photographs for its time. It was a member of the Soviet Zond program while also being part of the Mars 3MV project. It was unrelated to Zond spacecraft designed for manned circumlunar missions (Soyuz 7K-L1). It is believed that Zond 3 was initially designed as a companion spacecraft to Zond 2 to be launched to Mars during the 1964 launch window." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_3
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"Venera 3 (Russian: Венера-3 meaning Venus 3) was a Venera program space probe that was built and launched by the Soviet Union to explore the surface of Venus. It was launched on 16 November 1965 at 04:19 UTC from Baikonur, Kazakhstan, USSR. The probe comprised an entry probe, designed to enter the Venus atmosphere and parachute to the surface, and a carrier/flyby spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_3
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"Astérix, the first French satellite, was launched on November 26, 1965 by a Diamant A rocket from the CIEES launch site at Hammaguir, French Algeria." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ast%C3%A9rix_(satellite)
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"Alouette 2 was a Canadian research satellite launched at 04:48 UTC on November 29, 1965, by a Thor Agena rocket with Explorer 31 from the Western test range at Vandenberg AFB in California. It was (like its predecessor Alouette 1, and Explorer 31) designed to explore the ionosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alouette_2
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"Walter M. Schirra and Tom Stafford were first to perform a space rendezvous, piloting their Gemini 6A spacecraft and station-keeping one foot (30 cm) from Gemini 7 for over 5 hours." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_rendezvous#First_successful_rendezvous
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"Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9 were space probes in the Pioneer program. They were a series of solar-orbiting, spin-stabilized, solar cell- and battery-powered satellites designed to obtain measurements on a continuing basis of interplanetary phenomena from widely separated points in space.[1] They were also known as Pioneer A, B, C, and D. The fifth (Pioneer E) was lost in a launch accident, and therefore did not receive a numerical designation."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_6,_7,_8,_and_9
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"The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is a digital computer produced for the Apollo program that was installed on board each Apollo command module (CM) and Apollo Lunar Module (LM). The AGC provided computation and electronic interfaces for guidance, navigation, and control of the spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer
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"Several of the food issues from the Mercury missions were addressed for the later Gemini missions (1965–1966). Tubes (often heavier than the foods they contained) were abandoned. Gelatin coatings helped to prevent bite-sized cubes from crumbling. Simpler rehydration methods were developed. The menus also expanded to include items such as shrimp cocktail, chicken and vegetables, toast squares, butterscotch pudding, and apple juice." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_food#Early_history
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"Judy Sullivan (born 1943) is an American retired biomedical engineer who worked for NASA during the Apollo 11, Apollo 10, Apollo 9, Apollo 8 and Gemini 12 missions. For the Apollo 9 and Apollo 11 missions, she was lead biomedical engineer. Sullivan was the only woman in her department, and one of only a relative few women working for NASA in a technical role at that time. She was the first woman engineer hired by NASA for spacecraft testing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Sullivan
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"The Apollo Lunar Module, or simply Lunar Module (LM, pronounced "lem"), originally designated the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM), was the lander spacecraft that was flown from lunar orbit to the Moon's surface during the U.S. Apollo program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module
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"The Lunar Orbiter program was a series of five unmanned lunar orbiter missions launched by the United States from 1966 through 1967. Intended to help select Apollo landing sites by mapping the Moon's surface, they provided the first photographs from lunar orbit and photographed both the Moon and Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_program
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"The Surveyor program was a NASA program that, from June 1966 through January 1968, sent seven robotic spacecraft to the surface of the Moon. Its primary goal was to demonstrate the feasibility of soft landings on the Moon. The Surveyor craft were the first American spacecraft to achieve soft landing on an extraterrestrial body. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_program
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"First spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, or any planetary body other than Earth, and to transmit photographic data to Earth from the surface of another planetary body." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_9
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"The first docking with an Agena was successfully performed under the command of Neil Armstrong on Gemini 8 on March 16, 1966. Manual dockings were performed on three subsequent Gemini missions in 1966." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft#History
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"Luna 10 (E-6S series) was a 1966 Soviet Luna program, robotic spacecraft mission, also called Lunik 10. It was the first artificial satellite of the Moon.Luna 10 conducted extensive research in lunar orbit, gathering important data on the strength of the Moon's magnetic field, its radiation belts, and the nature of lunar rocks (which were found to be comparable to terrestrial basalt rocks), cosmic radiation, and micrometeoroid density." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_10
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"Surveyor 1 was the first lunar soft-lander in the uncrewed Surveyor program of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, United States). This lunar soft-lander gathered data about the lunar surface that would be needed for the crewed Apollo Moon landings that began in 1969." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_1
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"The first OAO was launched successfully on 8 April 1966, carrying instruments to detect ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray emission. Before the instruments could be activated, a power failure resulted in the termination of the mission after three days.The spacecraft was out of control, so that the solar panels could not be deployed to recharge the batteries that would supply power to the electrical and electronic equipment on board." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Astronomical_Observatory
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"The Lunar Orbiter 1 robotic spacecraft, part of NASA's Lunar Orbiter program, was the first American spacecraft to orbit the Moon. It was designed primarily to photograph smooth areas of the lunar surface for selection and verification of safe landing sites for the Surveyor and Apollo missions. It was also equipped to collect selenodetic, radiation intensity, and micrometeoroid impact data." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_1
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"The Lunar Orbiter 2 robotic spacecraft, part of the Lunar Orbiter Program, was designed primarily to photograph smooth areas of the lunar surface for selection and verification of safe landing sites for the Surveyor and Apollo missions. It was also equipped to collect selenodetic, radiation intensity, and micrometeoroid impact data." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_2
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"The Soyuz (Russian: Союз, meaning "union", GRAU index 11A511) was a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed in the 1960s by OKB-1 and manufactured by State Aviation Plant No. 1 in Kuybyshev, Soviet Union. It was commissioned to launch Soyuz spacecraft as part of the Soviet human spaceflight program, first with 8 uncrewed test flights, followed by the first 19 crewed launches" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)
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"NASA launched three satellites named Biosatellite 1, 2 and 3 between 1966 and 1969.The Biosatellite 1, also known abbreviated as Biosat 1 and as Biosatellite A, was the first unmanned artificial satellite belonging to the U.S. Biosatellite program for biological research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosatellite_program
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"Janus was identified by Audouin Dollfus on 15 December 1966 and given the temporary designation S/1966 S 2. Previously, Jean Texereau [fr] had photographed Janus on 29 October 1966 without realising it. Voyager 1 confirmed this orbital configuration in 1980" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janus_(moon)
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"Audouin Dollfus observed a moon on 15 December 1966, which he proposed to be named "Janus". On 18 December, Richard Walker made a similar observation which is now credited as the discovery of Epimetheus. However, at the time, it was believed that there was only one moon, unofficially known as "Janus", in the given orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimetheus_(moon)
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"Beatrice Alice Hicks (January 2, 1919 – October 21, 1979) was an American engineer, the first woman engineer to be hired by Western Electric, and both co-founder and first president of the Society of Women Engineers. During her time there, Hicks developed a gas density switch that would be used in the U.S. space program, including the Apollo moon landing missions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrice_Hicks
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"Dr. Christine Darden (born September 10, 1942, as Christine Mann) is an American mathematician, data analyst, and aeronautical engineer who devoted much of her 40-year career in aerodynamics at NASA to researching supersonic flight and sonic booms. Darden started working in the computer pool in 1967 at NASA, after she had completed an M.S. in mathematics at Virginia State University and taught there." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Darden
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"The North American X-15 was a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft. The X-15 set speed and altitude records in the 1960s, reaching the edge of outer space and returning with valuable data used in aircraft and spacecraft design." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15
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"Interkosmos (Russian: Интеркосмос) was a Soviet space program,designed to help the Soviet Union's allies with manned and unmanned space missions.Following the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, there were talks between NASA and Interkosmos in the 1970s about a "Shuttle-Salyut" program to fly Space Shuttle missions to a Salyut space station,in the 1980s even considering flights of the future Soviet shuttles from the Buran programme to a future US space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interkosmos
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"Surveyor 3 was the third lander of the American unmanned Surveyor program sent to explore the surface of the Moon in 1967. It was the first mission to carry a surface-soil sampling-scoop. It was visited by Apollo 12 astronauts in 1969, and remains the only probe visited by humans on another world. They brought back some parts of it to study, including its TV camera." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_3
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"It was a satellite in the Ariel programme, a satellite partnership between the US and UK. Three of the onboard experiments continued research from the first two missions and two experiments were designed for new research topics. It was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on 5 May 1967, making it the first satellite of the program to launch from the West coast. Ariel 3 was shut down in September 1969, and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere 14 Dec. 1970." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_3
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"Venera 4 (Russian: Венера-4 meaning Venera 4), also designated 4V-1 No.310 was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus. The probe comprised an entry probe, designed to enter the Venus atmosphere and parachute to the surface, and a carrier/flyby spacecraft, which carried the entry probe to Venus and served as a communications relay for the entry probe." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_4
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"Surveyor 5 was the fifth lunar lander of the American uncrewed Surveyor program sent to explore the surface of the Moon. Surveyor 5 landed on Mare Tranquillitatis in 1967. A total of 19,118 images were transmitted to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_5
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"It is considered to be the first national network of satellite television.Orbita ground station. Khabarovsk.1977
The Orbita system is based on communication satellites in highly elliptical Molniya orbits, as well as on many ground downlink TV stations for reception and relaying TV signals to antennas of TV sets of many local areas." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbita_(TV_system) -
"The Igla (Russian: Игла, "Needle") docking system was a Soviet radio telemetry system for automated docking of Soyuz spacecraft.The first prototypes were made in late 1965. On 30 October 1967, the first automated docking of Soyuz unmanned spacecraft took place." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking_and_berthing_of_spacecraft#History
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"Surveyor 6 was the sixth lunar lander of the American uncrewed Surveyor program that reached the surface of the Moon. Surveyor 6 landed on the Sinus Medii. A total of 30,027 images were transmitted to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_6
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"Apollo 4 (also known as AS-501) was the first uncrewed test flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle, the type used by the U.S. Apollo program to send the first astronauts to the Moon. The space vehicle was assembled in the Vertical Assembly Building, and was the first to be launched from Launch Complex 39 at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, facilities built specially for the Saturn V." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_4
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"The first pulsar was observed on November 28, 1967, by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish. They observed pulses separated by 1.33 seconds that originated from the same location in the sky, and kept to sidereal time."https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar#History_of_observation
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"WRESAT was launched on 29 November 1967 using a modified American Redstone rocket with two upper stages known as a Sparta from the Woomera Test Range in South Australia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRESAT
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"Surveyor 7 was the seventh and last lunar lander of the American uncrewed Surveyor program sent to explore the surface of the Moon. A total of 21,091 pictures were transmitted to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_7
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"In January 20, 1968, the TV camera of the Surveyor 7 lunar lander successfully detected two argon lasers from Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and Table Mountain Observatory in Wrightwood, California" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_communication_in_space
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"Apollo 5 (also known as AS-204), was the first uncrewed flight of the Apollo Lunar Module (LM), which would later carry astronauts to the lunar surface. It lifted off on January 22, 1968, with a Saturn IB rocket on an Earth-orbital flight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_5
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"Zond 4, part of the Soviet Zond program and an uncrewed version of Soyuz 7K-L1 crewed Moon-flyby spacecraft, was one of the first Soviet experiments towards crewed circumlunar spaceflight. It was launched to test the spaceworthiness of the new capsule and to gather data about flights in circumterrestrial space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_4
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"Apollo 6 (also known as AS-502), launched on April 4, 1968, was the second A-type mission of the United States Apollo program, an uncrewed test of the Saturn V launch vehicle. It was also the final uncrewed Apollo test mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_6
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"Zond 5 (Russian: Зонд 5, lit. 'Probe 5') was a spacecraft of the Soviet Zond program. In September 1968 it became the second spaceship to travel to and circle the Moon, and the first to return safely to Earth. Zond 5 carried the first terrestrial organisms to the vicinity of the Moon, including two tortoises, fruit fly eggs, and plants.[4] The tortoises underwent biological changes during the flight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_5
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"Apollo 7 was an October 1968 human spaceflight mission carried out by the United States. It was the first mission in the United States' Apollo program to carry a crew into space. It was also the first U.S. spaceflight to carry astronauts since the flight of Gemini XII in November 1966. The AS-204 mission, also known as "Apollo 1", was intended to be the first crewed flight of the Apollo program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_7
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"The Apollo program used several television cameras in its space missions in the late 1960s and 1970s; some of these Apollo TV cameras were also used on the later Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz Test Project missions. These cameras varied in design, with image quality improving significantly with each successive model. Two companies made these various camera systems: RCA and Westinghouse." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_TV_camera
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"OAO-2 carried 11 ultraviolet telescopes. It observed successfully until January 1973, and contributed to many significant astronomical discoveries. Among these were the discovery that comets are surrounded by enormous haloes of hydrogen, several hundred thousand kilometres across, and observations of novae which found that their UV brightness often increased during the decline in their optical brightness." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Astronomical_Observatory#OAO-2
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"Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit and the first to reach the Moon, orbit it, and return. Its three-astronaut crew — Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders — were the first humans to fly to the Moon, to witness and photograph an Earthrise, and to escape the gravity of a celestial body." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8
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"A trans-Earth injection (TEI) is a propulsion maneuver used to set a spacecraft on a trajectory which will intersect the Earth's Sphere of influence, usually putting the spacecraft on a Free return trajectory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Earth_injection
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"Earthrise is a photograph of Earth and some of the Moon's surface that was taken from lunar orbit by astronaut William Anders on December 24, 1968, during the Apollo 8 mission.[1][2][3] Nature photographer Galen Rowell declared it "the most influential environmental photograph ever taken""
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"is the national center for aerospace, energy and transportation research of Germany. Its headquarters are located in Cologne and it has multiple other locations throughout Germany. The DLR is engaged in a wide range of research and development projects in national and international partnerships. In addition to conducting its own research projects, DLR also acts as the German space agency." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center
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"The basis for digital video cameras are metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) image sensors. The first practical semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented in 1969, based on MOS capacitor technology. Following the commercialization of CCD sensors during the late 1970s to early 1980s, the entertainment industry slowly began transitioning to digital imaging and digital video over the next two decades." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video#History
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"The Meteor spacecraft are weather observation satellites launched by the Soviet Union and Russia. The Meteor satellite series was initially developed during the 1960s.The Meteor satellites[clarification needed] were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures, humidity, radiation, sea ice conditions, snow-cover, and clouds." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_(satellite)
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"The first professional wireless network was developed under the brand ALOHAnet in 1969 at the University of Hawaii and became operational in June 1971. The first commercial wireless network was the WaveLAN product family, developed by NCR in 1986.
1973 – Ethernet 802.3, 1991 – 2G cell phone network, June 1997 – 802.11 "Wi-Fi" protocol first release, 1999 – 803.11 VoIP integration" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network#History -
"Margaret Heafield Hamilton (born August 17, 1936) is an American computer scientist, systems engineer and business owner. She was director of the Software Engineering Division of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, which developed on-board flight software for NASA's Apollo program. She later founded two software companies—Higher Order Software in 1976 and Hamilton Technologies in 1986, both in Cambridge, Massachusetts." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)
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"Katherine Johnson (August 26, 1918 – February 24, 2020) was an American mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. crewed spaceflights. During her 35-year career at NASA and its predecessor, she earned a reputation for mastering complex manual calculations and helped pioneer the use of computers to perform the tasks." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Johnson
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"This were the third and fourth in a series of Canadian satellites launched to study the ionosphere. After the success of Canada's Alouette 1, Canada and the United States jointly sent up three more satellites in the ISIS program. The first was named Alouette 2 (after originally being named ISIS-X). As was the case for the Alouette satellites, RCA Victor of Montreal was the prime contractor for both ISIS 1 and 2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIS_(satellite)
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"Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 (Mariner Mars 69A and Mariner Mars 69B) were two unmanned NASA space probes that completed the first dual mission to Mars in 1969 as part of NASA's wider Mariner program. Mariner 6 was launched from Launch Complex 36B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station[3] and Mariner 7 from Launch Complex 36A at Cape Kennedy." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_6_and_7
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"AMSAT-NA was founded in 1969 in Washington, D.C. to continue the efforts begun by Project OSCAR. Its first project was to coordinate the launch of OSCAR 5, constructed by students at the University of Melbourne.[1] Some design modifications were needed and were made by AMSAT members, and the satellite was successfully launched on January 30, 1970, on a NASA Thor Delta launch vehicle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMSAT#History
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"Apollo 9 was a March 1969 human spaceflight, the third in NASA's Apollo program. Flown in low Earth orbit, it was the second crewed Apollo mission that the United States launched via a Saturn V rocket, and was the first flight of the full Apollo spacecraft: the command and service module (CSM) with the Lunar Module (LM)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_9
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"Apollo 10 was a May 1969 human spaceflight, the fourth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, and the second (after Apollo 8) to orbit the Moon. It was the F mission: a "dress rehearsal" for the first Moon landing, testing all the components and procedures just short of actually landing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_10
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"Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin formed the American crew that landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC. He became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six hours and 39 min later on July 21 at 02:56 UTC; Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and they collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11
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"When Buzz Aldrin switched on the TV camera on the Lunar Module, three tracking antennas received the signals simultaneously. They were the 64-metre (210 ft) Goldstone antenna in California, the 26-metre (85 ft) antenna at Honeysuckle Creek near Canberra in Australia, and the 64-metre (210 ft) dish at Parkes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkes_Observatory
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"Maspalomas Station supported a number of prominent NASA missions, including the Apollo program, the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project and the Skylab space station. For the Apollo 11 mission that landed the first humans on Moon in July 1969, Maspalomas Station acted as one of the receiving station for transmissions from the Apollo crew and relayed them to Houston using an analog link via London." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maspalomas_Station
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"American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin performed the first EVA on the lunar surface on July 21, 1969 (UTC), after landing their Apollo 11 Lunar Module spacecraft. This first Moon walk, using self-contained portable life support systems, lasted 2 hours and 36 minutes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity#Apollo_lunar_EVA
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"The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /ˈɪsroʊ/) (Hindi; IAST: bhārtīya antrikṣ anusandhān saṅgṭhan) is the space agency of the Government of India and has its headquarters in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research & planetary exploration". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation
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"Churyumov–Gerasimenko was discovered in 1969 by Klim Ivanovich Churyumov of the Kiev University's Astronomical Observatory, who examined a photograph that had been exposed for comet Comas Solà by Svetlana Ivanovna Gerasimenko on 11 September 1969 at the Alma-Ata Astrophysical Institute. Churyumov–Gerasimenko was the destination of the European Space Agency's Rosetta mission, launched on 2 March 2004" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/67P/Churyumov%E2%80%93Gerasimenko"
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"It was a Japanese national space agency established on October 1, 1969 under the National Space Development Agency Law only for peaceful purposes. Based on the Space Development Program enacted by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), NASDA was responsible for developing satellites and launch vehicles as well as launching and tracking them." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan
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"Azur (also called GRS-A) was West Germany's first scientific satellite. Launched on 8 November 1969 it studied the Van Allen belts, solar particles, and aurorae. The construction of the satellite was carried out by Ludwig Bölkow, one of the aeronautical pioneers of Germany, and with the participation of other German companies."
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"Apollo 12 was the sixth crewed flight in the United States Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. It was launched on November 14, 1969, from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, four months after Apollo 11. Commander Charles "Pete" Conrad and Apollo Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean performed just over one day and seven hours of lunar surface activity while Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon remained in lunar orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_12
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"The development of the nickel hydrogen battery started in 1970 at Comsat and was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). Currently, the major manufacturers of nickel-hydrogen batteries are Eagle-Picher Technologies and Johnson Controls, Inc." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery#History
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"The Zodiacal light (also called false dawn when seen before sunrise) is a faint, diffuse, and roughly triangular white glow that is visible in the night sky and appears to extend from the Sun's direction and along the zodiac, straddling the ecliptic. Sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust causes this phenomenon.The Pioneer 10 spacecraft observations in the 1970s linked zodiacal light with the interplanetary dust cloud in the Solar System." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiacal_light
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"The first commercial floppy disks, developed in the late 1960s, were 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter; they became commercially available in 1971 as a component of IBM products and then were sold separately beginning in 1972 by Memorex and others.The term "floppy disk" appeared in print as early as 1970, and although IBM announced its first media as the "Type 1 Diskette" in 1973, the industry continued to use the terms "floppy disk" or "floppy"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk
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" is the first Japanese satellite put into orbit. It was launched on February 11, 1970 at 04:25 UTC with a Lambda 4S-5 rocket from Uchinoura Space Center by Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science, University of Tokyo, now part of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). Japan became the fourth nation after the USSR, United States and France to release an artificial satellite into successful orbit on its own." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohsumi_(satellite)
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"Apollo 13 was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) failed two days into the mission. The crew instead looped around the Moon, and returned safely to Earth on April 17."
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"Apollo 13 was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) failed two days into the mission. The crew instead looped around the Moon, and returned safely to Earth on April 17." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13
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"Earth Day is an annual event celebrated around the world on April 22 to demonstrate support for environmental protection. First celebrated in 1970, it now includes events coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network in more than 193 countries." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Day
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"It was the first space satellite of the People's Republic of China (PRC), launched successfully on 24 April 1970 as part of the PRC's Dongfanghong space satellite program. At 173 kg (381 lb), it was heavier than the first satellites of other countries. The satellite carried a radio transmitter which broadcast the de facto national anthem of the same name. The broadcast lasted for 20 days while in orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Fang_Hong_I
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"Luna 16, also known as Lunnik 16, was an uncrewed space mission, part of the Soviet Luna program. It was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and return a sample of lunar soil to Earth.The sample was returned from Mare Fecunditatis. It represented the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union and was the third lunar sample return mission overall, following the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_16
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"NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No. 4 and formed on October 3, 1970, after U.S. President Richard Nixon proposed creating a new agency to serve a national need." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration#History
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"Zond 8, also known as L-1 No.14, was the last in the series of circumlunar spacecraft, a member of the Soviet Zond program, designed to rehearse a piloted circumlunar flight, an uncrewed version of Soyuz 7K-L1 crewed circumlunar flight spacecraft. The project was initiated in 1965 to compete with the Americans in the race to the Moon but lost its importance once three astronauts circled the Moon on the Apollo 8 mission in December 1968." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_8
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"Zond 8, also known as L-1 No.14, was the last in the series of circumlunar spacecraft, a member of the Soviet Zond program, designed to rehearse a piloted circumlunar flight, an uncrewed version of Soyuz 7K-L1 crewed circumlunar flight spacecraft. The project was initiated in 1965 to compete with the Americans in the race to the Moon but lost its importance once three astronauts circled the Moon on the Apollo 8 mission in December 1968." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_8
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"Luna 17 was launched from an Earth parking orbit towards the Moon and entered lunar orbit on 15 November 1970. The spacecraft softly landed on the Moon in the Sea of Rains. The spacecraft had dual ramps by which the payload, Lunokhod 1, descended to the lunar surface. Lunokhod 1 was a lunar vehicle formed of a tub-like compartment with a large convex lid on eight independently powered wheels." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_17
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"It was the first of two robotic lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of its Lunokhod program. The Luna 17 spacecraft carried Lunokhod 1 to the Moon in 1970. Lunokhod 1 was the first remote-controlled robot "rover" to freely move across the surface of an astronomical object beyond the Earth. It was also the first wheeled craft on another celestial body." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunokhod_1
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"The Soyuz 7K-LOK, or simply LOK (Russian: Лунный Орбитальный Корабль, romanized: Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl meaning "Lunar Orbital Craft") was a Soviet crewed spacecraft designed to launch men from Earth to orbit the Moon, developed in parallel to the 7K-L1. The LOK would carry two cosmonauts, acting as a mother ship for the LK Lander which would land one crew member to the surface." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-LOK
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"Sergei Korolev, the lead Soviet rocket engineer and spacecraft designer during the 1950s and 1960s, planned to adopt the same lunar orbit rendezvous concept as seen in the Apollo Program. The lunar expedition spacecraft L3 was to consist of a Soyuz 7K-L3 Command Ship (a variant of the Soyuz) and a LK Lander. L3 would carry a two-man crew atop a single three-stage superheavy N-1 booster." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LK_(spacecraft)
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"Uhuru was the first satellite launched specifically for the purpose of X-ray astronomy. It was also known as the X-ray Explorer Satellite, SAS-A (for "Small Astronomy Satellite" A, being first of the three-spacecraft SAS series), SAS 1, or Explorer 42." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhuru_(satellite)
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"Uhuru was the first satellite launched specifically for the purpose of X-ray astronomy. It was also known as the X-ray Explorer Satellite, SAS-A (for "Small Astronomy Satellite" A, being first of the three-spacecraft SAS series), SAS 1, or Explorer 42. The observatory was launched on December 12, 1970 into an initial orbit of about 560 km apogee, 520 km perigee, 3 degrees inclination, with a period of 96 minutes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhuru_(satellite)
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"Venera 7 (Russian: Венера-7, meaning Venus 7) was a Soviet spacecraft, part of the Venera series of probes to Venus. When it landed on the Venusian surface on 15 December 1970, it became the first spacecraft to soft land on another planet and first to transmit data from there back to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_7
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"Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a method of exchanging messages ("mail") between people using electronic devices. Ray Tomlinson is credited as the inventor of email; in 1971, he developed the first system able to send mail between users on different hosts across the ARPANET, using the @ sign to link the user name with a destination server." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email
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"The Genesis Rock is a sample of Moon rock retrieved by Apollo 15 astronauts James Irwin and David Scott in 1971 during the second lunar EVA, at Spur crater. It is currently stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility in Houston, Texas. It is sample number 15415. Dating of pyroxenes from other lunar anorthosite samples gave a samarium–neodymium age of crystallization of 4.46 billion years." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Rock
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"Various forms of one-to-one electronic messaging were used in the 1960s. Users communicated using systems developed for specific mainframe computers. As more computers were interconnected, especially in the U.S. Government's ARPANET, standards were developed to permit exchange of messages between different operating systems.SMTP traces its roots to two implementations described in 1971" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol#History
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"Apollo 14 was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the "H missions," targeted landings with two-day stays on the Moon with two lunar EVAs, or moonwalks." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_14
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"The Salyut program followed this with five more successful launches of seven more stations. The final module of the program, Zvezda (DOS-8), became the core of the Russian segment of the International Space Station and remains in orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_1
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"Mars 3 was a robotic space probe of the Soviet Mars program, launched May 28, 1971, nine days after its twin spacecraft Mars 2. The probes were identical robotic spacecraft launched by Proton-K rockets with a Blok D upper stage, each consisting of an orbiter and an attached lander. After the Mars 2 lander crashed on the Martian surface, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to attain a soft landing on Mars, on December 2, 1971." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_3
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"It was a robotic space probe that contributed greatly to the exploration of Mars and was part of the NASA Mariner program. After the occurrence of dust storms on the planet for several months following its arrival, the orbiter managed to send back clear pictures of the surface. Mariner 9 successfully returned 7329 images over the course of its mission, which concluded in October 1972." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_9
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"Apollo 15 was the ninth crewed mission in the United States' Apollo program, and the fourth to land on the Moon. It was the first J mission, with a longer stay on the Moon and a greater focus on science than earlier landings. Apollo 15 saw the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_15
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"Luna 19 extended the systematic study of lunar gravitational fields and location of mascons (mass concentrations). It also studied the lunar radiation environment, the gamma-active lunar surface, and the solar wind. Photographic coverage via a television system was also obtained." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_19
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"It is a Government agency in Sweden operating under the Swedish Ministry of Education and Science. SNSA distributes government grants to research and development, initiates research and development in space and remote sensing, and is the Swedish contact in international cooperation. SNSA has twenty-one employees (2018) and its office is situated in the Solna Municipality, within Stockholm." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_National_Space_Agency
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"Pioneer 10 (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, launched in 1972 and weighing 258 kilograms (569 pounds), that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter.[3] Thereafter, Pioneer 10 became the first of five artificial objects to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_10
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"The first plaque was launched with Pioneer 10 on March 2, 1972.The original idea, that the Pioneer spacecraft should carry a message from mankind, was first mentioned by Eric Burgess when he visited the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, during the Mariner 9 mission. He approached Carl Sagan, who had lectured about communication with intelligent extraterrestrials at a conference in Crimea." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_plaque
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"Apollo 16 was the tenth crewed mission in the United States Apollo space program, the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon, and the second to land in the lunar highlands. The second of Apollo's "J missions," it was crewed by Commander John Young, Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_16
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"Landsat 1 (LS-1), formerly named ERTS-A and ERTS-1, was the first satellite of the United States' Landsat program. It was a modified version of the Nimbus 4 meteorological satellite and was launched on July 23, 1972, by a Delta 900 rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsat_1
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"The Blue Marble is an image of Earth taken on December 7, 1972, from a distance of about 29,000 kilometers (18,000 miles) from the planet's surface.It was taken by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft on its way to the Moon, and is one of the most reproduced images in history." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blue_Marble
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"Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the final Moon landing mission of NASA's Apollo program, and remains the most recent time humans have travelled beyond low Earth orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_17
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"The naming of moons has been the responsibility of the International Astronomical Union's committee for Planetary System Nomenclature since 1973. That committee is known today as the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_of_moons
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"Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, based on Stumpe's work at a television factory in the early 1960s. Then manufactured by CERN, and shortly after by industry partners,it was put to use in 1973." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen#History
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"The early developments of packet network designs by Paul Baran and other researchers were motivated by a desire for a higher degree of circuit redundancy and network availability in the face of infrastructure failures than was possible in the circuit-switched networks in telecommunications of the mid-twentieth century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#History
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"Comet Kohoutek, formally designated C/1973 E1, 1973 XII, and 1973f, was first sighted on 7 March 1973 by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek. It attained perihelion on 28 December that same year. Comet Kohoutek is a long-period comet; its previous apparition was about 150,000 years ago, and its next apparition will be in about 75,000 years." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Kohoutek
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"Salyut 2 (OPS-1) (Russian: Салют-2 meaning Salute 2) was a Soviet space station which was launched in 1973 as part of the Salyut programme. It was the first Almaz military space station to fly. Within two weeks of its launch, the station had lost attitude control and depressurised, leaving it unusable. Its orbit decayed and it re-entered the atmosphere on 28 May 1973, without any crews having visited it." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_2
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"Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[31] Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones#The_cellular_concept
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"The first Almaz station (OPS-1 or Almaz 101.1) was launched on April 3, 1973. For purposes of military secrecy, it was publicly designated Salyut 2 upon reaching orbit. A crew was prepared to fly to the station but an accident days after the launch left OPS-1 disabled and depressurized." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaz
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"Pioneer 11 (Pioneer G) is a 259-kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on April 6, 1973 to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, solar wind and cosmic rays. It was the first probe to encounter Saturn and the second to fly through the asteroid belt and by Jupiter. Thereafter, Pioneer 11 became the second of five artificial objects to achieve the escape velocity that will allow them to leave the Solar System." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_11
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"Kosmos 557 (Russian: Космос 557 meaning Cosmos 557) was the designation given to DOS-3, the third space station in the Salyut program. It was originally intended to be launched as Salyut-3, but due to its failure to achieve orbit on May 11, 1973, three days before the launch of Skylab, it was renamed Kosmos-557." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmos_557
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"Occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-man crews: SL-2, SL-3 and SL-4. Major operations included an orbital workshop, a solar observatory, Earth observation, and hundreds of experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab
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"Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 It was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation. The idea was first documented in a memo that Metcalfe wrote on May 22, 1973, where he named it after the luminiferous aether once postulated to exist as an "omnipresent, completely-passive medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves." " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet#History
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"Skylab 2 (also SL-2 and SLM-1) was the first crewed mission to Skylab, the first U.S. orbital space station. The mission was launched on an Apollo command and service module by a Saturn IB rocket on May 25, 1973, and carried a three-person crew to the station. The name Skylab 2 also refers to the vehicle used for that mission. The Skylab 2 mission established a twenty-eight-day record for human spaceflight duration." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab_2
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"The mission began July 28, 1973, with the launch of three astronauts in the Apollo command and service module on the Saturn IB rocket, and lasted 59 days, 11 hours and 9 minutes. A total of 1,084.7 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by the Skylab 3 crew performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities, solar observations, Earth resources, and other experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab_3
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"Mariner 10 was an American robotic space probe launched by NASA on 3 November 1973, to fly by the planets Mercury and Venus. It was the first spacecraft to perform flybys of multiple planets. Mariner 10 was launched approximately two years after Mariner 9 and was the last spacecraft in the Mariner program. (Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 were allocated to the Voyager program and redesignated Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_10
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"The mission started on November 16,1973 with the launch of three astronauts on an Apollo command and service module on a Saturn IBrocket from the Kennedy Space Center,Florida and lasted 84 days,one hour and 16 minutes. A total of 6,051 astronaut-utilization hours were tallied by Skylab4 astronauts performing scientific experiments in the areas of medical activities,solar observations, Earth resources,observation of the CometKohoutek and other experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab_4
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"The GOES system uses geosynchronous satellites that, since the launch of SMS-1 in 1974, have been a basic element of U.S. weather monitoring and forecasting. The procurement, design, and manufacture of GOES satellites is overseen by NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite
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"In May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published a paper entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". The paper's authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet switching among network nodes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol#Version_history
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"1974 saw the introduction of what is considered by many to be the first true "personal computer", the Altair 8800 created by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS). Based on the 8-bit Intel 8080 Microprocessor, the Altair is widely recognized as the spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution as the first commercially successful personal computer." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer#History
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"Westar 1 was America's first domestic and commercially launched geostationary communications satellite, launched by Western Union (WU) and NASA on April 13, 1974. It was built by Hughes for Western Union, using the HS-333 platform of spin-stabilized satellites. Westar 1 was the first of five Westar satellites launched by Western Union from 1974 to 1982." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westar_1
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"Salyut 3 (Russian: Салют-3; also known as OPS-2 or Almaz 2) was a Soviet space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully. It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_3
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"It was discovered by Charles T. Kowal at the Mount Palomar Observatory on September 14, 1974, after three nights' worth of photographic plates had been taken (September 11 through 13; Leda appears on all of them). It was named after Leda, who was raped by Zeus, the Greek equivalent of Jupiter (who came to her in the form of a swan). Kowal suggested the name and the IAU endorsed it in 1975." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leda_(moon)
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"The Arecibo message is a 1974 interstellar radio message carrying basic information about humanity and Earth sent to globular star cluster M13. It was meant as a demonstration of human technological achievement, rather than a real attempt to enter into a conversation with extraterrestrials." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_message
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"The IBM 5100 Portable Computer is a portable computer (one of the first) introduced in September 1975, six years before the IBM Personal Computer. It was the evolution of a prototype called the SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) that was developed at the IBM Palo Alto Scientific Center in 1973." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_5100
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"Betamax (also called Beta, as in its logo) is a consumer-level analog-recording and cassette format of magnetic tape for video. It was developed by Sony and was released in Japan on May 10, 1975. The first Betamax device introduced in the United States was the LV-1901 console, which included a 19-inch (48 cm) color monitor, and appeared in stores in early November 1975." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax
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"It is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris. ESA's space flight programme includes human spaceflight the launch and operation of uncrewed exploration missions to other planets and the Moon; Earth observation, science and telecom; designing launch vehicles; and maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Agency
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"Venera 9 (Russian: Венера-9 meaning Venus 9), manufacturer's designation: 4V-1 No. 660, was a Soviet unmanned space mission to Venus. It consisted of an orbiter and a lander. It was launched on June 8, 1975, at 02:38:00 UTC and had a mass of 4,936 kilograms (10,882 lb). The orbiter was the first spacecraft to orbit Venus, while the lander was the first to return images from the surface of another planet." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_9
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"COS-B was the first European Space Research Organisation mission to study cosmic gamma ray sources. COS-B was first put forward by the European scientific community in the mid-1960s and approved by the ESRO council in 1969. The mission consisted of a satellite containing gamma-ray detectors, which was launched by NASA on behalf of the ESRO on August 9, 1975." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cos-B
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"Themisto was first discovered by Charles T. Kowal and Elizabeth Roemer on September 30, 1975, reported on October 3, 1975, and designated S/1975 J 1. However, not enough observations were made to establish an orbit and it was subsequently lost." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themisto_(moon)
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"A variety of unit symbols and abbreviations have been in use for the astronomical unit. In a 1976 resolution, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) had used the symbol A to denote a length equal to the astronomical unit. In the astronomical literature, the symbol AU was (and remains) common. In 2006, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) had recommended ua as the symbol for the unit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit#History_of_symbol_usage
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"Sol (borrowed from the Latin word for sun) is a Mars solar day; that is, a Mars-day. A sol is the apparent interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the same meridian (sundial time) as seen by an observer on Mars.It is one of several units for timekeeping on Mars.The sol was originally adopted in 1976 during the Viking Lander missions and is a measure of time mainly used by NASA when, for example, scheduling the use of the Mars rover." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(day_on_Mars)
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"Marisat 1 (or Marisat F1) is a communications satellite operated by COMSAT. Marisat 1 was the first of a series of Marisat COMSAT maritime communications satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marisat_1
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"The Apple Computer 1, originally released as the Apple Computer, also known later as the Apple I, or Apple-1, is a desktop computer released by the Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) in 1976. It was designed and hand-built by Steve WozniakThe idea of selling the computer came from Wozniak's friend Steve Jobs." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_I
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"These are a series of two scientific research satellites designed to provide an orbiting laser ranging benchmark for geodynamical studies of the Earth. Each satellite is a high-density passive laser reflector in a very stable medium Earth orbit (MEO)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAGEOS
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"Salyut 5 (Russian: Салют-5 meaning Salute 5), also known as OPS-3, was a Soviet space station. Launched in 1976 as part of the Salyut programme, it was the third and last Almaz space station to be launched for the Soviet military. Two Soyuz missions visited the station, each manned by two cosmonauts. A third Soyuz mission attempted to visit the station, but failed to dock, whilst a fourth mission was planned but never launched." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_5
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"Viking 1 was the first of two spacecraft (along with Viking 2) sent to Mars as part of NASA's Viking program. On July 20, 1976, it became the second spacecraft to soft-land on Mars, and the first to successfully perform its mission. (The first spacecraft to soft-land on Mars was the Soviet Union's Mars 3 on December 2, 1971, which stopped transmitting after 14.5 seconds.) Viking 1 held the record for the longest Mars surface mission of 2307 days." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_1
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"VHS (short for Video Home System)is a standard for consumer-level analog video recording on tape cassettes. Developed by Victor Company of Japan (JVC) in the early 1970s, it was released in Japan on September 9, 1976, and in the United States on August 23, 1977." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHS
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"The Approach and Landing Tests were a series of taxi and flight trials of the prototype Space Shuttle Enterprise, conducted in 1977 to test the vehicle's flight characteristics both on its own and when mated to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, prior to the operational debut of the Shuttle system." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approach_and_Landing_Tests
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"GEOS was a geostationary multi-experiment satellite dedicated to magnetospheric research. The instruments for this project were provided by multiple European institutions. When GEOS was launched in 1977, the launcher malfunctioned and the planned orbit was not achieved. A modified qualification model of the same payload was successfully launched in 1978 and remained in operation until 1982 when it was turned off." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Space_Research_Organisation#GEOS
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"The TKS spacecraft (Russian: Транспортный корабль снабжения, Transportnyi Korabl’ Snabzheniia, Transport Supply Spacecraft, GRAU index 11F72) was a Soviet spacecraft conceived in the late 1960s for resupply flights to the military Almaz space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TKS_(spacecraft)#TKS-1_(Kosmos_929)
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"HEAO-1 was an X-ray telescope launched in 1977. HEAO-1 surveyed the sky in the X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (0.2 keV – 10 MeV), providing nearly constant monitoring of X-ray sources near the ecliptic poles and more detailed studies of a number of objects by observations lasting 3–6 hours. It was the first of NASA's three High Energy Astronomy Observatories." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Energy_Astronomy_Observatory_1
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"The Wow! signal was a strong narrowband radio signal received on August 15, 1977 by Ohio State University's Big Ear radio telescope in the United States, then used to support the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. The signal appeared to come from the direction of the constellation Sagittarius and bore the expected hallmarks of extraterrestrial origin."
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"Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20, 1977, to study the outer planets. Part of the Voyager program, it was launched 16 days before its twin, Voyager 1, on a trajectory that took longer to reach Jupiter and Saturn but enabled further encounters with Uranus and Neptune.[4] It is the only spacecraft to have visited either of these two ice giant planets. Voyager 2 is the fourth of five spacecraft to achieve the Solar escape velocity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2
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"Voyager 1 was launched 16 days after its twin, Voyager 2. Having operated for 42 years, 8 months and 15 days as of May 21, 2020, the spacecraft still communicates with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands and to transmit data to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1
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"Salyut 6 (Russian: Салют-6; lit. Salute 6), DOS-5. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_6
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"The International Sun-Earth Explorer 2 (ISEE-2 a.k.a. ISEE-B) was a space probe used to study magnetic fields near the Earth. ISEE-1 and ISEE-2 were launched on October 22, 1977, and they re-entered on September 26, 1987.The instruments on board ISEE-2 were designed to measure electric and magnetic field properties." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISEE-2
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"The first generation of Meteosat satellites, Meteosat-1 to Meteosat-7, provided continuous and reliable meteorological observations from space to a large user community. Meteosat-1 to 7 have all now retired. When operational the Meteosat First Generation provided images every half-hour in three spectral channels (Visible, Infrared) and Water Vapour, via the Meteosat Visible and Infrared Imager (MVIRI) instrument. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteosat#First_generation
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"Allan Hills 77005 is a Martian meteorite that was found in the Allan Hills of Antarctica in 1977 by a Japanese National Institute of Polar Research mission team and ANSMET. Like other members of the group of SNCs (shergottite, nakhlite, chassignite), ALH-77005 is thought to be from Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hills_77005
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"The Chicxulub crater is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico.Its center is located offshore near the town of Chicxulub, after which the crater is named. It was formed when a large asteroid or comet about 11 to 81 kilometers (6.8 to 50.3 miles) in diameter, known as the Chicxulub impactor, struck the Earth. The date of the impact coincides precisely with the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_crater
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"The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally NAVSTAR GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System
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"Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2 (pronounced "vilt two") (/ˈvɪlt/ VILT), is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild, who discovered it on January 6, 1978, using a 40-cm Schmidt telescope at Zimmerwald, Switzerland. NASA's Stardust Mission launched a spacecraft, named Stardust, on February 7, 1999. It flew by Wild 2 on January 2, 2004, and collected particle samples from the comet's coma" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/81P/Wild
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"Progress 1 (Russian: Прогресс 1), was a Soviet unmanned Progress cargo spacecraft which was launched in 1978 to resupply the Salyut 6 space station. It was the maiden flight of the Progress spacecraft, and used the Progress 7K-TG configuration. It carried supplies for the EO-1 crew aboard Salyut 6, which consisted of Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Romanenko and Georgy Grechko." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_1
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"The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) was an astronomical observatory satellite primarily designed to take ultraviolet spectra. The satellite was a collaborative project between NASA, the UK Science Research Council and the European Space Agency (ESA). The mission was first proposed in early 1964, by a group of scientists in the United Kingdom, and was launched on January 26, 1978 aboard a NASA Delta rocket." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Ultraviolet_Explorer
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"The Orbital Test Satellite programme was an experimental satellite system inherited by the European Space Agency (ESA) in 1975 from its predecessor, the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO). The first of the pair of OTS satellites (OTS-1) was lost at launch in the failure of its US Delta launcher in September 1977." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Test_Satellite
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"Charon was discovered by United States Naval Observatory astronomer James Christy, using the 1.55-meter (61 in) telescope at United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS). On June 22, 1978, he had been examining highly magnified images of Pluto on photographic plates taken with the telescope two months prior." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charon_(moon)
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"Einstein Observatory (HEAO-2) was the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into space and the second of NASA's three High Energy Astrophysical Observatories. Named HEAO B before launch, the observatory's name was changed to honor Albert Einstein upon its successfully attaining orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Observatory
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"Thebe was discovered by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the Voyager 1 space probe taken on March 5, 1979, and was initially given the provisional designation S/1979 J 2. In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe who was a lover of Zeus—the Greek equivalent of Jupiter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebe_(moon)
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"Walkman is a brand of portable media players manufactured by Sony. The original Walkman, released in 1979, was a portable cassette player that allowed people to listen to music of their choice on the move. Its popularity made "walkman" a unofficial term for personal stereos of any producer or brand." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkman
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"Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in Voyager 2 probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation S/1979 J 1. Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrastea_(moon)
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"Ariane 1 was the first rocket in the Ariane family of expendable launch systems. It was developed and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), which had been formed in 1973, the same year that development of the launch had commenced.Ariane 1 was the first launcher to be developed with the primary purpose of sending commercial satellites into geosynchronous orbit. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_1
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"The basis for USB flash drives is flash memory, a type of floating-gate semiconductor memory invented by Fujio Masuoka in the early 1980s. Flash memory uses floating-gate MOSFET transistors as memory cells.M-Systems, an Israeli company, were granted a US patent on November 14, 2000, titled "Architecture for a [USB]-based Flash Disk", and crediting the invention to Amir Ban, Dov Moran and Oron Ogdan, all M-Systems employees at the time." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive
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"Arianespace SA is a multinational company founded in 1980 as the world's first commercial launch service provider.[2] It undertakes the operation and marketing of the Ariane programme.[3] The company offers a number of different launch vehicles: the heavy-lift Ariane 5 for dual launches to geostationary transfer orbit, the Soyuz-2 as a medium-lift alternative, and the solid-fueled Vega for lighter payloads." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianespace
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"The Solar Maximum Mission satellite (or SolarMax) was designed to investigate Solar phenomena, particularly solar flares. It was launched on February 14, 1980. The SMM was the first satellite based on the Multimission Modular Spacecraft bus manufactured by Fairchild Industries, a platform which was later used for Landsats 4 and 5[1] as well as the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Maximum_Mission
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"Calypso is a moon of Saturn. It was discovered in 1980, from ground-based observations, by Dan Pascu, P. Kenneth Seidelmann, William A. Baum, and Douglas G. Currie, and was provisionally designated S/1980 S 25 (the 25th satellite of Saturn discovered in 1980)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_(moon)
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"It was discovered by Smith, Reitsema, Larson and Fountain in 1980 from ground-based observations, and was provisionally designated S/1980 S 13. In the following months, several other apparitions were observed: S/1980 S 24, S/1980 S 33, and S/1981 S 1.
In 1983 it was officially named after Telesto of Greek mythology. It is also designated as Saturn XIII or Tethys B." -
"It was discovered by Pierre Laques and Jean Lecacheux in 1980 from ground-based observations at Pic du Midi Observatory, and was designated S/1980 S 6. In 1988 it was officially named after Helen of Troy, who was the granddaughter of Cronus (Saturn) in Greek mythology. Helene is also designated Saturn XII (12), which it was given in 1982, and Dione B." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helene_(moon)
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"It was discovered in 1980 (in 24 October) from photos taken by the Voyager 1 probe, and was provisionally designated S/1980 S 27.In late 1985 it was officially named after Prometheus, a Titan in Greek mythology.It is also designated Saturn XVI." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_(moon)
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"Atlas was discovered by Richard Terrile in 1980 (some time before November 12) from Voyager photos and was designated S/1980 S 28. In 1983 it was officially named after Atlas of Greek mythology, because it "holds the rings on its shoulders" like the Titan Atlas held the sky up above the Earth. It is also designated Saturn XV." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(moon)
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"Inflation theory was developed in the late 1970s and early 80s, with notable contributions by several theoretical physicists, including Alexei Starobinsky at Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics, Alan Guth at Cornell University, and Andrei Linde at Lebedev Physical Institute." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)"
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"The first orbiter, Columbia, launched on 12 April 1981 and returned on 14 April, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. Columbia carried a crew of two – mission commander John W. Young and pilot Robert L. Crippen. It was the first American crewed space flight since the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-1
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"It was first discovered by Harold J. Reitsema, William B. Hubbard, Larry A. Lebofsky and David J. Tholen, based on fortuitous ground-based stellar occultation observations on May 24, 1981, given the temporary designation S/1981 N 1 and announced on May 29, 1981" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larissa_(moon)
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"After the discovery in 2004, it was realized that Pallene had been first photographed on August 23, 1981, by the space probe Voyager 2. It had appeared in a single photograph and had been provisionally named S/1981 S 14 and estimated to orbit 200,000 km from Saturn. Because it had not been visible in other images, it had not been possible to compute its orbit at the time, but recent comparisons have shown it to match Pallene's orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallene_(moon)
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"Venera 13 (Russian: Венера-13 meaning Venus 13) was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus. Venera 13 and 14 were identical spacecraft built to take advantage of the 1981 Venus launch opportunity and launched 5 days apart, Venera 13 on 30 October 1981 at 06:04 UTC and Venera 14 on 4 November 1981 at 05:31 UTC, both with an on-orbit dry mass of 760 kg (1,680 lb)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_13
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"STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter Columbia.The mission launched on 12 November 1981 and landed two days later on 14 November. STS-2 marked the first time that a crewed, reusable orbital vehicle returned to space.This mission tested the Shuttle Imaging Radar as part of the OSTA-1 payload, along with a wide range of other experiments including the Shuttle robotic arm, commonly known as Canadarm." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-2
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"STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on 22 March 1982, and landed eight days later on 30 March. The mission involved extensive orbital endurance testing of the Columbia itself, as well as numerous scientific experiments. STS-3 was the first shuttle launch with an unpainted external tank, and the only mission to land at the White Sands Space Harbor near Las Cruces, New Mexico." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-3
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"Salyut 7 (Russian: Салют-7; English: Salute 7) (a.k.a. DOS-6) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991. It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_7
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"Svetlana Yevgenyevna Savitskaya (Russian: Светла́на Евге́ньевна Сави́цкая; born 8 August 1948) is a retired Soviet aviator and cosmonaut who flew aboard Soyuz T-7 in 1982, becoming the second woman in space. On her 1984 Soyuz T-12 mission she became the first woman to fly to space twice, and the first woman to perform a spacewalk." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetlana_Savitskaya
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"STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle Columbia. Carrying a crew of two, the mission launched on Sunday, June 27th, 1982,and landed a week later on July 4th,Independence Day in the United States
STS-4 was the final test flight for the shuttle; it was thereafter officially declared to be operational. Columbia carried numerous scientific payloads during the mission, as well as military missile detection systems" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-4 -
"Compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony and released in 1982." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc
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"STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on 11 November 1982 and landed five days later on 16 November. STS-5 was the first shuttle mission to deploy communications satellites into orbit, and the first officially "operational" shuttle mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-5
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"SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research is the Dutch expertise institute for space research. The Institute develops and uses innovative technology for research in space, focusing on astrophysical research, Earth science and planetary research. SRON has a line of research into new and more sensitive sensors for X-rays and infrared radiation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands_Institute_for_Space_Research
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"It is a governmental body, a part of Israel's Ministry of Science and Technology, that coordinates all Israeli space research programs with scientific and commercial goals. The agency was founded by the theoretical physicist Professor Yuval Ne'eman in 1983 to replace the National Committee for Space Research which was established in 1960 to set up the infrastructure required for space missions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Space_Agency
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"The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) was the first-ever space telescope to perform a survey of the entire night sky at infrared wavelengths. Following the end of its mission, the 1.1 metric-ton satellite was not deorbited and constitutes a space hazard.Launched on 25 January 1983, its mission lasted ten months." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRAS
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"Soyuz T-15 (Russian: Союз T-15, Union T-15) was a crewed mission to the Mir and Salyut 7 space stations and was part of the Soyuz programme. It marked the final flight of the Soyuz-T spacecraft, the third generation Soyuz spacecraft, which had been in service for seven years from 1979 to 1986. This mission marked the first time that a spacecraft visited, and docked with, two space stations in the same mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_T-15
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"STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on 4 April 1983, the mission deployed the first Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, TDRS-1, into orbit, before landing at Edwards Air Force Base on 9 April. STS-6 was the first Space Shuttle mission during which a spacewalk was conducted, and hence was the first in which the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) was used." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-6
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"The European X-ray Observatory Satellite (EXOSAT), originally named HELOS, was an X-ray telescope operational from May 1983 until April 1986 and in that time made 1780 observations in the X-ray band of most classes of astronomical object including active galactic nuclei, stellar coronae, cataclysmic variables, white dwarfs, X-ray binaries, clusters of galaxies, and supernova remnants." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXOSAT
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"Eutelsat I F-1, also known as European Communications Satellite 1 (ECS-1) was a communications satellite operated by the European Telecommunications Satellite Organisation. Launched in 1983, it was operated in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 13° East, before moving to several other locations later in its operational life, before it was finally decommissioned in 1996." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutelsat_I_F-1
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"STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle Challenger. During the mission, Challenger deployed several satellites into orbit. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24. STS-7 was notable for carrying Sally Ride, America's first female astronaut." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-7
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"Sally Kristen Ride (May 26, 1951 – July 23, 2012) was an American astronaut and physicist. Born in Los Angeles, she joined NASA in 1978 and became the first American woman in space in 1983. Ride was the third woman in space overall, after USSR cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova (1963) and Svetlana Savitskaya (1982)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Ride
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"STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. It launched on August 30, 1983 and landed on September 5, conducting the first night launch and night landing of the Space Shuttle program. It also carried the first African-American astronaut, Guion Bluford." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-8
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"Guion Stewart Bluford Jr. (born November 22, 1942) is an American aerospace engineer, retired U.S. Air Force officer and fighter pilot, and former NASA astronaut, who is the first African American and the second person of African descent to go to space. Before becoming an astronaut, he was an officer in the U.S. Air Force, where he remained while assigned to NASA, rising to the rank of colonel." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guion_Bluford
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"Amateur-satellite service Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS) - operating in the Amateur-satellite service - is a project sponsored by various entities and carried out by astronauts and cosmonauts on the International Space Station who also have an amateur radio license." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_Radio_on_the_International_Space_Station
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"STS-9 (also referred to as STS-41-A and Spacelab 1) was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia. Launched on November 28, 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-9
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"Dr. Ulf Dietrich Merbold (born June 20, 1941) is the first West German citizen and second German native (after Sigmund Jähn) to have flown in space. He is also the first member of the European Space Agency Astronaut Corps to participate in a spaceflight mission and the first non-US citizen to reach orbit in a US spacecraft. In 1983, he was selected as the prime payload specialist, and in 1983 he flew on board the Columbia on the STS-9 mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulf_Merbold
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"Kurs (Ukrainian and Russian: Курс, lit. 'Course') is a radio telemetry system used by the Soviet and later Russian space program.Kurs was developed by the Research Institute of Precision Instruments (Russian: НИИ Точных Приборов, romanized: NII Tochnikh Priborov) before 1985 and manufactured by the Kiev Radio Factory (Ukrainian: Київський Радіозавод, romanized: Kyyivskyy Radiozavod)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurs_(docking_navigation_system)
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"A portable CD player is a portable audio player used to play compact discs. The first audio player released was the Discman D-50 by Sony." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discman
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"STS-41-B was the tenth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger. It launched on February 3, 1984, and landed on February 11 after deploying two communications satellites. It was also notable for including the first untethered spacewalk." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-41-B
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"Bruce McCandless II (June 8, 1937 – December 21, 2017) was a U.S. naval officer and aviator, electrical engineer, and NASA astronaut. In 1984, during the first of his two Space Shuttle missions, he completed the first untethered spacewalk by using the Manned Maneuvering Unit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_McCandless_II
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"STS-41-C was NASA's 11th Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle Challenger. The launch, which took place on April 6, 1984, marked the first direct ascent trajectory for a shuttle mission. During the mission, Challenger's crew captured and repaired the malfunctioning Solar Maximum Mission" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-41-C
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"STS-41-D was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle Discovery. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September. Three commercial communications satellites were deployed into orbit during the six-day mission, and a number of scientific experiments were conducted." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-41-D
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"It was the first shuttle mission to carry a crew of seven, including the first crew with two women (Sally Ride and Kathryn Sullivan), the first American EVA involving a woman (Sullivan), the first Australian-born person to journey into space and the first astronaut with a beard (Paul Scully-Power) and the first Canadian astronaut (Marc Garneau)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-41-G
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"The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) was a NASA scientific research satellite within NASA's ERBE (Earth Radiation Budget Experiment) Research Program - a three-satellite mission, designed to investigate the Earth's radiation budget It also carried an instrument that studied stratospheric aerosol and gases." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite
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"Anna Lee Fisher (born August 24, 1949) is an American chemist, emergency physician, and a former NASA astronaut. Formerly married to fellow astronaut Bill Fisher, and the mother of two children, in 1984 she became the first mother in space. During her career at NASA, she has been involved with three major programs: the Space Shuttle, the International Space Station and the Orion project." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Lee_Fisher
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"STS-51-A was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on November 8, 1984, and landed just under eight days later on November 16. STS-51-A marked the first time a shuttle deployed two communications satellites, and retrieved from orbit two other communications satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-A
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"The SETI Institute is a not-for-profit research organization incorporated in 1984 whose mission is to explore, understand, and explain the origin and nature of life in the universe, and to apply the knowledge gained to inspire and guide present and future generations. It aims for discovery and for sharing knowledge as scientific ambassadors to the public, the press, and the government. SETI stands for the "search for extraterrestrial intelligence"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI_Institute
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"The Vega program (Cyrillic: ВеГа) was a series of Venus missions that also took advantage of the appearance of comet 1P/Halley in 1986. Vega 1 and Vega 2 were uncrewed spacecraft launched in a cooperative effort among the Soviet Union (who also provided the spacecraft and launch vehicle) and Austria, Bulgaria, France, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Federal Republic of Germany in December 1984." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_program
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"The National Space Program was a set of policies and organisations under the Keating Government created with the goals of developing a national space industry in Australia. When the Howard Government came to power in 1996 the program was abolished following the advice of the Bureau of Industry Economics." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Program
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"A research team managed by Akira Yoshino of Asahi Chemical, Japan, to build the first lithium-ion battery prototype in 1985, a rechargeable and more stable version of the lithium battery; Sony commercialized the lithium-ion battery in 1991." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_battery#Lithium_and_lithium-ion_batteries
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"STS-51-C was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. It launched on January 24, 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on January 27. STS-51-C was the first shuttle mission to deploy a dedicated United States Department of Defense (DoD) payload, and consequently many mission details remain classified." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-C
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"STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on April 12, 1985 was delayed by 55 minutes, after a boat strayed into the restricted Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) recovery zone. STS-51-D was the third shuttle mission to be extended." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-D
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"Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although unmanned, the design was adapted from the manned Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite)
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"STS 51-B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle Challenger. The launch of Challenger on April 29, 1985 was delayed by 2 minutes and 18 seconds, due to a launch processing failure. Challenger was initially rolled out to the pad to launch on the STS-51-E mission. Conducted experiments in microgravity" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-B
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"STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle Discovery. The seven-day mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 17, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24. Sultan bin Salman Al Saud of Saudi Arabia was on board as a payload specialist; Al Saud became the first Arab, the first Muslim, and the first member of a royal family to fly into space" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-G
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"Giotto was a European robotic spacecraft mission from the European Space Agency. The spacecraft flew by and studied Halley's Comet and in doing so became the first spacecraft to make close up observations of a comet. On 13 March 1986, the spacecraft succeeded in approaching Halley's nucleus at a distance of 596 kilometers. It was named after the Early Italian Renaissance painter Giotto di Bondone." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giotto_(spacecraft)
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"STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle Challenger. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on July 29, 1985, and landed just under eight days later on August 6.While STS-51-F's primary payload was the Spacelab 2 laboratory module, the payload that received the most publicity was the Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-F
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"STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle Atlantis. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, carrying a payload for the U.S. Department of Defense, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51-J
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"STS-61-A (also known as D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle Challenger. STS-61-A holds the current record for the largest crew - eight people - aboard any single spacecraft for the entire period from launch to landing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-61-A
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"STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle Atlantis. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. During STS-61-B, the shuttle crew deployed three communications satellites, and tested techniques of constructing structures in orbit. Atlantis landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33 EST on 3 December 1985, after 6 days and 21 hours in orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-61-B
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"Rodolfo Neri Vela (born 19 February 1952) is a Mexican scientist and astronaut who flew aboard a NASA Space Shuttle mission in the year 1985. He is the first Mexican, and the second Latin American to have traveled to space.Vgf Neri was a Payload Specialist aboard the STS-61-B Atlantis mission, from (November 26 to December 3, 1985)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodolfo_Neri_Vela
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"Puck is an inner moon of Uranus. It was discovered in December 1985 by the Voyager 2 spacecraft. The name Puck follows the convention of naming Uranus's moons after characters from Shakespeare. The orbit of Puck lies between the rings of Uranus and the first of Uranus's large moons, Miranda." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puck_(moon)
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"The European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) is an intergovernmental organisation created through an international convention agreed by a current total of 30 European Member States.EUMETSAT's primary objective is to establish, maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites
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"Juliet is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 3 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliet_(moon)
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"Portia is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 3 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 1.The moon is named after Portia, the heroine of William Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice. It is also designated Uranus XII" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portia_(moon)
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"It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 9 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 3. It was named after Cressida, the Trojan daughter of Calchas, a tragic heroine who appears in William Shakespeare's play Troilus and Cressida (as well as in tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and others). It is also designated Uranus IX." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cressida_(moon)
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"STS-61-C was the 24th mission, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle Columbia.The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January. STS-61-C's crew included the second African-American shuttle pilot, future NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, the first Costa Rican-born astronaut, Franklin Chang-Diaz, and the second sitting politician to fly in space, Representative Bill Nelson (D-FL). " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-61-C
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"Rosalind is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 13 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 4. It was named after the daughter of the banished Duke in William Shakespeare's play As You Like It. It is also designated Uranus XIII" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_(moon)
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"Desdemona is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 13 January 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 6. Desdemona is named after the wife of Othello in William Shakespeare's play Othello. It is also designated Uranus X" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desdemona_(moon)
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"Belinda is an inner satellite of the planet Uranus. Belinda was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on 13 January 1986 and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 5. It is named after the heroine of Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock. It is also designated Uranus XIV." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belinda_(moon)
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"Cordelia is the innermost known moon of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on January 20, 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 7. It was not detected again until the Hubble Space Telescope observed it in 1997. Cordelia takes its name from the youngest daughter of Lear in William Shakespeare's King Lear. It is also designated Uranus VI" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordelia_(moon)
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"Ophelia is a moon of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on January 20, 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 8. It was not seen until the Hubble Space Telescope recovered it in 2003. Ophelia was named after the daughter of Polonius, Ophelia, in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet. It is also designated Uranus VII" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophelia_(moon)
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"Bianca is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered from the images taken by Voyager 2 on January 23, 1986, and was given the temporary designation S/1986 U 9.It was named after the sister of Katherine in Shakespeare's play The Taming of the Shrew. It is also designated Uranus VIII" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bianca_(moon)
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"The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was a fatal incident in the United States space program that occurred on Tuesday, January 28, 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger (OV-099) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, killing all seven crew members aboard. The crew consisted of five NASA astronauts, one payload specialist, and a civilian schoolteacher." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster
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"It was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir
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"It is one of the primary research bodies in the field of space science in Bulgaria. The mission of SRTI-BAS is to conduct fundamental and applied studies in the field of Space Physics, Remote Sensing of the Earth and Planets, and Aerospace Systems and Technologies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Research_and_Technology_Institute
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"Video Graphics Array (VGA) is a graphics standard for video display controllers first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987, following CGA and EGA introduced in earlier IBM personal computers. Through widespread adoption, the term has also come to mean either an analog computer display standard, the 15-pin D-subminiature VGA connector, or the 640×480 resolution characteristic of the VGA hardware." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Graphics_Array
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"The mission was divided into two parts (sometimes called (a) and (b), the division occurring when one of the two crew members, Aleksandr Laveykin, was replaced part way through the mission by Aleksandr Aleksandrov. Laveykin was replaced because ground-based doctors had diagnosed him with minor heart problems." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-2
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"Soyuz TM-2 was the spacecraft used to launch a long duration crew to the Soviet space station Mir, which was uncrewed at the time. TM-2 was launched in February 1987, and it was first crewed spaceflight of the Soyuz-TM spacecraft, and the second crewed spaceflight to Mir (the first being Soyuz T-15). The crew of the long duration expedition, Mir EO-2, who were launched by TM-2 consisted of Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Romanenko and Aleksandr Laveykin." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TM-2
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"Energia (Russian: Энергия, Energiya, "Energy") (GRAU 11K25) was a Soviet rocket that was designed by NPO Energia to serve as a heavy-lift partially recoverable launch system for a variety of payloads including the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the Khartron NPO "Electropribor"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia
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"Soyuz TM-4 was the fourth crewed spacecraft to dock with the space station Mir. It was launched in December 1987, and carried the first two crew members of the third long duration expedition, Mir EO-3. These crew members, Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov, would stay in space for just under 366 days, setting a new spaceflight record." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TM-4
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"The crew consisted of 3 people, Musa Manarov (Commander), Vladimir Titov (Flight Engineer) and Valeri Polyakov (Research Doctor). Manarov and Titov arrived at the station in December 1987 on Soyuz TM-4, while Polyakov arrived much later, in August 1988 on Soyuz TM-6. After the arrival of Polyakov, medical experiments became more intensive." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-3
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"The Italian Space Agency (Italian: Agenzia Spaziale Italiana; ASI) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinate space exploration activities in Italy. The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entities who are active in aerospace research and technology." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency
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"Phobos 1 was an uncrewed Soviet space probe of the Phobos Program launched from the Baikonour launch facility on 7 July 1988.Its intended mission was to explore Mars and its moons Phobos and Deimos. The mission failed on 2 September 1988 when a computer malfunction caused the end-of-mission order to be transmitted to the spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_program
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"The first indications of Gamma Cephei Ab were reported in July 1988. The planet was tentatively identified by a Canadian team of astronomers, which was led by Bruce Campbell, Gordon Walker, and Stephenson Yang, while its existence was also announced by Anthony Lawton and P. Wright in 1989." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Cephei_Ab
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"STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October. STS-26 was declared the "Return to Flight" mission, being the first mission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of 28 January 1986." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-26
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"Buran (Russian: Бура́н, IPA: [bʊˈran], meaning "Snowstorm" or "Blizzard"; GRAU index serial number: 11F35 1K) was the first spaceplane to be produced as part of the Soviet/Russian Buran programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buran_(spacecraft)
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"The expedition began in November 1988, when crew members Commander Aleksandr Volkov and Flight Engineer Sergei Krikalev arrived at the station via the spacecraft Soyuz TM-7." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-4
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"STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle Atlantis. Launching on 2 December 1988 on a four-day mission, it was the second shuttle flight after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster of January 1986. STS-27 carried a classified payload for the U.S. Department of Defense, ultimately determined to be a Lacrosse surveillance satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-27
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"Thalassa /θəˈlæsə/, also known as Neptune IV, is the second-innermost satellite of Neptune. Thalassa was named after sea goddess Thalassa, a daughter of Aether and Hemera from Greek mythology. "Thalassa" is also the Greek word for "sea"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassa_(moon)
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"The upgraded Progress M (GRAU: 11F615A55, manufacturer's designation: 7K-TGM) was first launched in August 1989. The first 43 flights all went to Mir; following Mir's re-entry, Progress was used as the resupply vehicle for the International Space Station. As of August 2014, there have been 56 flights to the ISS and more are scheduled." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_(spacecraft)#Progress-M_11F615A55_(1989-2009)
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"The Canadian Space Agency (CSA; French: Agence spatiale canadienne, ASC) is the national space agency of Canada, established in 1990 by the Canadian Space Agency Act. The agency reports to the federal Minister of Innovation, Science, and Economic Development." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency
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"The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an information system where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible over the Internet. English engineer and computer scientist Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989. He wrote the first web browser in 1990 while employed at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web#History
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"STS-29 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Discovery inserted a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) into Earth orbit. It was the third shuttle mission following the Challenger disaster of 1986, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989. STS-29 was the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall; its planned predecessor, STS-28, was delayed until August 1989." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-29
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"The Magellan spacecraft, also referred to as the Venus Radar Mapper, was a 1,035-kilogram (2,282 lb) robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellan_(spacecraft)
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"STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the fourth shuttle launch since the Challenger Disaster and the first shuttle mission since the disaster to have a female astronaut on board. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May. During the mission, Atlantis deployed the Venus-bound Magellan probe into orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-30
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"Proteus (/ˈproʊtiːəs/), also known as Neptune VIII, is the second-largest Neptunian moon, and Neptune's largest inner satellite. Discovered by Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1989, it is named after Proteus, the shape-changing sea god of Greek mythology. Proteus orbits Neptune in a nearly equatorial orbit at the distance of about 4.75 times the radius of Neptune's equator" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteus_(moon)
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"Olympus-1 was a communications satellite built by Astrium (at the time of the construction of the satellite British Aerospace and Matra Marconi Space) and Thales Alenia Space (also at the time Alcatel Espace and Alenia Spazio), along with Fokker and SPAR Aerospace, for the European Space Agency. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus-1
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"Despina /dɛˈspaɪnə/, also known as Neptune V, is the third-closest inner satellite of Neptune. It is named after Greek mythological character Despoina, a nymph who was a daughter of Poseidon and Demeter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Despina_(moon)
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"Galatea /ɡæləˈtiːə/, also known as Neptune VI, is the fourth-closest inner satellite of Neptune. It is named after Galatea, one of the fifty Nereids of Greek legend, with whom Cyclops Polyphemus was vainly in love." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galatea_(moon)
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"STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle Columbia.The mission details of STS-28 are classified, but the payload is widely believed to have been the first SDS-2 communications satellite. The altitude of the mission was between 295 kilometers (183 mi) and 307 kilometers (191 mi)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-28
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"Hipparcos was a scientific satellite of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 1989 and operated until 1993. It was the first space experiment devoted to precision astrometry, the accurate measurement of the positions of celestial objects on the sky." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparcos
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"Mir EO-5 was the 5th long duration expedition to the space station Mir, which lasted from September 1989 to February 1990. The two person crew was launched and landed in the spacecraft Soyuz TM-8, which remained docked to Mir throughout the mission. The crew are often referred to as the Soyuz TM-8 crew." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-5
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"Naiad /ˈneɪæd/, also known as Neptune III, is the innermost satellite of Neptune, named after the naiads of Greek legend. Naiad was discovered sometime before mid-September 1989 from the images taken by the Voyager 2 probe. The last moon to be discovered during the flyby, it was designated S/1989 N 6." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naiad_(moon)
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"It is the aeronautics and space agency of South Korea. Its main laboratories are located in Daejeon. KARI's vision is to continue building upon indigenous launch capabilities, strengthen national safety and public service, industrialize satellite information and applications technology, explore the moon, and develop environmentally-friendly and highly-efficient cutting-edge aircraft and core aerospace technology." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute
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"Galileo was an American uncrewed spacecraft that studied the planet Jupiter and its moons, as well as several other Solar System bodies. Named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. It was delivered into Earth orbit on October 18, 1989 by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Galileo arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)
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"The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE /ˈkoʊbi/), also referred to as Explorer 66, was a satellite dedicated to cosmology, which operated from 1989 to 1993. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer
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"STS-33 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Discovery deployed a payload for the United States Department of Defense (DoD). It was the 32nd shuttle mission overall, the ninth flight of Discovery, the fifth shuttle mission in support of the DoD and the last Shuttle launch of the 1980s." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-33
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"The wireless revolution began in the 1990s, with the advent of digital wireless networks leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology, including the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones, mobile telephony, pagers, wireless computer networks, cellular networks, the wireless Internet, and laptop and handheld computers with wireless connections." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless#History
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"Euromir was an international space programme in the 1990s. Between the Russian Federal Space Agency and the European Space Agency (ESA), it would bring European astronauts to the Mir space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euromir
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"STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle Columbia. Launched on 9 January 1990, it marked the first use of Launch Pad A at Kennedy Space Center's Complex 39 since 1986; it also marked the first use of Mobile Launcher Platform-3 (MLP-3) in the Space Shuttle program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-32
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"Mir EO-6 was the sixth long duration expedition to the space station Mir. The two crew members were Anatoli Soloviyov (Commander) and Aleksandr Balandin (Flight Engineer)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-6
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"Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken on February 14, 1990, by the Voyager 1 space probe from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles, 40.5 AU), as part of that day's Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System. In the photograph, Earth's apparent size is less than a pixel; the planet appears as a tiny dot against the vastness of space, among bands of sunlight reflected by the camera." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pale_Blue_Dot
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"STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Atlantis carried a classified payload for the U.S. Department of Defense (believed to have been a Misty reconnaissance satellite) into orbit. STS-36 was the 34th shuttle mission overall, the sixth flight for Atlantis, and the fourth night launch of the shuttle program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-36
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"The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope but it is one of the largest and most versatile, well known both as a vital research tool and as a public relations boon for astronomy. The Hubble telescope is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA's Great Observatories" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope
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"STS-31 was the 35th mission of the American Space Shuttle program, which launched the Hubble Space Telescope astronomical observatory into Earth orbit. The mission used the Space Shuttle Discovery (the tenth for this orbiter), which lifted off from Launch Complex 39B on 24 April 1990 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-31
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"The first image taken with the HST is intended to assist in focusing the telescope. The region observed is centered on the 8.2 magnitude star HD96755 in the open cluster NGC 3532, in the southern constellation Carina. Identical small subsections of the HST and ground-based image pictures were chosen to highlight the difference in resolution." https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hubble_First_Light,_First_Released_Image_(STScI-1990-04a).png
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"Pan is the innermos named moon of Saturn. It is a small, walnut-shaped moon approximately 35 kilometres across and 23 km wide that orbits within the Encke Gap in Saturn's A Ring. Pan is a ring shepherd and is responsible for keeping the Encke Gap free of ring particles. It is sometimes described as having the appearance of a ravioli.It was discovered by Mark R. Showalter in 1990 from analysis of old Voyager 2 probe." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(moon)
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"Mir EO-7 was the seventh long duration expedition to the space station Mir. The two crew members were Gennadi Manakov (Commander) and Gennadi Strekalov (Flight Engineer)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-7
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It is a decommissioned robotic space probe whose primary mission was to orbit the Sun and study it at all latitudes. It was launched in 1990 and made three "fast latitude scans" of the Sun in 1994/1995, 2000/2001, and 2007/2008. In addition, the probe studied several comets. Ulysses was a joint venture of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) with participation from Canada's National Research Council.." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(spacecraft)
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"STS-41 was the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle Discovery. The four-day mission with a primary objective to launch the Ulysses probe as part of the "International Solar Polar Mission"." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-41
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"Ulysses (US: /juːˈlɪsiːz/, UK: /ˈjuːlɪ-/) is a decommissioned robotic space probe whose primary mission was to orbit the Sun and study it at all latitudes. It was launched in 1990 and made three "fast latitude scans" of the Sun in 1994/1995, 2000/2001, and 2007/2008. In addition, the probe studied several comets. Ulysses was a joint venture of NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) with participation from Canada's National Research Council." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(spacecraft)
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"STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the 37th shuttle mission, and carried a classified payload for the U.S. Department of Defense. It was the 7th flight for Atlantis and the 7th flight dedicated to the Department of Defense. The mission was a 4-day mission that traveled more than 2 million miles and completed 79 revolutions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-38
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"STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle Columbia, the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-35
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"The crew, consisting of Russian cosmonauts Viktor Afanasyev and Musa Manarov, launched along with space journalist Toyohiro Akiyama on December 2, 1990 aboard Soyuz TM-11. Akiyama returned aboard Soyuz TM-10 with the outgoing Mir EO-7 crew on December 10. Afanasyev and Manarov returned aboard Soyuz TM-11 on May 26, 1991." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-8
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"The Romanian Space Agency (ROSA) is a public institution with extrabudgetary funding which coordinates the national space technology research programs and the space research related activities since 1991. ROSA is subordinated to the Ministry of Education." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Space_Agency
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"2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation cellular network. 2G cellular networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were:
Digitally encrypted phone conversations.
Significantly more efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum enabling more users per frequency band.
Data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2G -
"The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) was a space observatory detecting photons with energies from 20 keV to 30 GeV, in Earth orbit from 1991 to 2000. The observatory featured four main telescopes in one spacecraft, covering X-rays and gamma rays, including various specialized sub-instruments and detectors." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory
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"STS-37, the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a six-day mission with the primary objective of launching the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), the second of the Great Observatories program which included the visible-spectrum Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope. The mission also featured two spacewalks, the first since 1985." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-37
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"STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the Space Shuttle Discovery. The primary purpose of the mission was to conduct a variety of payload experiments for the Department of Defense." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-39
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"STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June, 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. STS-40 was the first spaceflight that included three women crew members." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-40
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"European remote sensing satellite (ERS) was the European Space Agency's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit. It consisted of 2 satellites, ERS-1 and ERS-2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite
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"STS-43, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a nine-day mission whose primary goal was launching the fourth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, TDRS-E. The flight also tested an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station and conducted a variety of medical and materials science investigations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-43
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"STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle Discovery. The primary payload was the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 am at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. The mission was completed in 81 revolutions of the Earth and traveled 2.2 million miles." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-48
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"The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth's atmosphere, particularly the protective ozone layer. The 5,900-kilogram (13,000 lb) satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991. It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 kilometers, with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite
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"The Nikon NASA F4 Electronic Still Camera was one of the first and rarest fully digital cameras with development started in 1987.While Nikon delivered a modified Nikon F4 body, most of the electronics for the digital camera and housings were designed and built by NASA at the Johnson Space Center and other suppliers.Later the cameras were flown on several other Shuttle missions including STS-44, 45, 42, 49, 53,56and 61." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-48
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"STS-44 was a Space Shuttle mission using Atlantis that launched on 24 November 1991. It was a U.S. Department of Defense space mission. A launch set for 19 November was delayed due to replacement and testing of a malfunctioning redundant inertial measurement unit on the Inertial Upper Stage booster attached to the Defense Support Program satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-44
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"The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, after World War II. The period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War
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"It is the Ukrainian government agency responsible for space policy and programs. Along with the Ukrainian Defense Industry and the Antonov Aeronautical Scientific-Technical Complex, it is a major state complex of the national defense industry of Ukraine. The State Space Agency of Ukraine does not specialize in manned astronautical programs." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Space_Agency_of_Ukraine
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"In 1988, Jewitt moved to the Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii. Luu later joined him to work at the University of Hawaii's 2.24 m telescope at Mauna Kea. Eventually, the field of view for CCDs had increased to 1024 by 1024 pixels, which allowed searches to be conducted far more rapidly. Finally, after five years of searching, Jewitt and Luu announced on August 30, 1992 the "Discovery of the candidate Kuiper belt object 1992 QB1" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt
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"STS-42 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission with the Spacelab module. Liftoff was originally scheduled for 8:45 EST (13:45 UTC) 22 January 1992, but the launch was delayed due to weather constraints. Discovery successfully lifted off an hour later at 9:52 EST (14:52 UTC). The main goal of the mission was to study the effects of microgravity on a variety of organisms." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-42
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"PSR B1257+12 c, alternatively designated PSR B1257+12 B, also named Poltergeist, is an extrasolar planet approximately 2,300 light-years awa in the constellation of Virgo. It was one of the first planets ever discovered outside the Solar System, and is one of three pulsar planets known to be orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_B1257%2B12_B
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"The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, is a state corporation responsible for the wide range and types of space flights and cosmonautics programs for the Russian Federation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscosmos
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"STS-49 was the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The primary goal of its nine-day mission was to retrieve an Intelsat VI satellite (Intelsat 603, which failed to leave low earth orbit two years before), attach it to a new upper stage, and relaunch it to its intended geosynchronous orbit. After several attempts, the capture was completed with the only three-person extra-vehicular activity (EVA) in space flight history." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-49
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"STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory 1) was a United States Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the Columbia orbiter. Columbia landed at Kennedy Space Center for the first time ever due to bad weather at Edwards caused by the remnants of Hurricane Darby." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-50
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"It was a NASA solar and magnetospheric observatory, and was the first spacecraft in the Small Explorer program. It was launched into low Earth orbit on July 3, 1992, from Vandenberg Air Force Base aboard a Scout G-1 rocket. SAMPEX was an international collaboration between NASA of the United States and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics of Germany." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Anomalous_and_Magnetospheric_Particle_Explorer".
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"Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real world are enhanced by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory and olfactory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_reality#History
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" The crew, consisting of Russian cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Sergei Avdeyev launched aboard Soyuz TM-15 on 27 July 1992 with French Research Cosmonaut Michel Tognini. After remaining on board Mir for just over six months, Solovyev and Avdeyev returned aboard the same spacecraft on 1 February 1993." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-12
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"The European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) was an unmanned 4.5-tonne satellite with 15 experiments.[2] It was a European Space Agency (ESA) mission and the acronym was derived from Archimedes' bathtub revelation "Eureka!". It was built by the German MBB-ERNO and had automatic material science cells as well as small telescopes for solar observation (including x-ray)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Retrievable_Carrier
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"The mission's primary objectives were the deployment of the European Space Agency's EURECA (European Retrievable Carrier) and the joint NASA/Italian Space Agency Tethered Satellite System. EURECA was deployed a day later than scheduled because of a problem with its data handling system. Seven and a half hours after deployment, the spacecraft's thrusters were fired to boost EURECA to its planned operating altitude of around 310 miles." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-46#Mission_highlights
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"EURECA was an unmanned 4.5-tonne satellite with 15 experiments. It was a European Space Agency (ESA) mission and the acronym was derived from Archimedes' bathtub revelation "Eureka!". It was launched 31 July 1992 by Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS-46, and placed into an orbit at an altitude of 508 km (316 mi). EURECA was retrieved on 1 July 1993 by Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-57 and returned to Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Retrievable_Carrier
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"STS-47 was the 50th Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission mainly involved conducting experiments in life and material sciences." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-47
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"Mae Carol Jemison (born October 17, 1956) is an American engineer, physician, and former NASA astronaut. She became the first black woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. Jemison joined NASA's astronaut corps in 1987 and was selected to serve for the STS-47 mission, during which she orbited the Earth for nearly eight days on September 12–20, 1992." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mae_Jemison
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"STS-52 was a Space Transportation System (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle Columbia, and was launched on 22 October 1992. Primary mission objectives were deployment of the Laser Geodynamics Satellite II (LAGEOS-II) and operation of the U.S. Microgravity Payload-1 (USMP-1). LAGEOS-II, a joint effort between NASA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI), was deployed on day 2 and boosted into an initial elliptical orbit by ASI's Italian Research Interim Stage (IRIS)."
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"The Znamya 2 was a 20-metre wide space solar mirror. Znamya-2 was launched aboard Progress M-15 from Baikonur on 27 October 1992. After visiting the EO-12 crew aboard the Mir space station the Progress T-15 then undocked and deployed the reflector from the end of the Russian Progress spacecraft on 4 February 1993, next to the Russian Mir space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znamya_(satellite)#Znamya_2
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"Space Flight Europe-America 500 was a goodwill mission conceived in 1992 as the first private, commercial spaceflight[1] by the Russian Foundation for Social Inventions and TsSKB-Progress, a Russian rocket-building company, to increase trade between Russia and USA, and promote use of technology once reserved only for military forces." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Flight_Europe-America_500
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"STS-53 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission in support of the United States Department of Defense. The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.Discovery carried a classified primary payload for the United States Department of Defense, two unclassified secondary payloads and nine unclassified middeck experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-53
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"The first SMS message was sent over the Vodafone GSM network in the United Kingdom on 3 December 1992, from Neil Papworth of Sema Group (now Mavenir Systems) using a personal computer to Richard Jarvis of Vodafone using an Orbitel 901 handset. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS#Early_implementations
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"A significant enabler of satellite-delivered Internet has been the opening up of the Ka band for satellites. In December 1993, Hughes Aircraft Co. filed with the Federal Communications Commission for a license to launch the first Ka-band satellite, Spaceway. In 1995, the FCC issued a call for more Ka-band satellite applications, attracting applications from 15 companies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access#History_of_satellite_Internet
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"STS-54 was a Space Transportation System (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle Endeavour. This was the third flight for Endeavour, and was launched on 13 January 1993.The primary payload was the fifth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-F) which was deployed on day one of the mission. It was later successfully transferred to its proper orbit by the Inertial Upper Stage booster." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-54
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"STS-56 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.The primary payload of the flight was the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer."
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"It is the national space agency of China. It is responsible for the national space program and for planning and development of space activities." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration
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"STS-55, or D-2, was the 55th overall flight of the US Space Shuttle and the 14th flight of Shuttle Columbia. This flight was a multinational Spacelab flight involving 88 experiments from eleven different nations. The experiments ranged from biology sciences to simple Earth observations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-55
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"STS-57 was a Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle Endeavour that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.During the course of the ten-day flight, the astronauts successfully conducted scores of biomedical and materials sciences experiments inside the pressurized SPACEHAB module." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-57
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"STS-51 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission that launched the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) in September 1993. The flight also featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of Discovery in space. A spacewalk was also performed during the mission to evaluate tools and techniques for the STS-61 Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission later that year." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-51
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"STS-58 was a mission flown by Space Shuttle Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993. The missions was primarily devoted to experiments concerning the physiological effects of spaceflight. This was the first in-flight use of the "Portable In-flight Landing Operations Trainer" simulation software. It was also the last time Columbia would land at Edwards Air Force Base." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-58
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"STS-61 was the first Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The mission restored the spaceborne observatory's vision, marred by spherical aberration, with the installation of a new main camera and a corrective optics package." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-61
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"In 1994, AT&T launched PersonaLink Services, an online platform for personal and business communication and entrepreneurship. The storage was one of the first to be all web-based, and referenced in their commercials as, "you can think of our electronic meeting place as the cloud." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_storage#History
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"The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October, 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the European Commission, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the ARPANET, one of the predecessors to the Internet." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium
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"Clementine (officially called the Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE) was a joint space project between the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (previously the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization) and NASA, launched on January 25, 1994.Its objective was to test sensors and spacecraft components in long-term exposure to space and to make scientific observations of both the Moon and the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_(spacecraft)
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"STS-60 was the first mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, which carried Sergei K. Krikalev, the first Russian cosmonaut to fly aboard a Space Shuttle. The mission used Space Shuttle Discovery, which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-60
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"The Brazilian Space Agency is the civilian authority in Brazil responsible for the country's space program. It operates a spaceport at Alcântara, and a rocket launch site at Barreira do Inferno. The agency has given Brazil a role in space in South America and made Brazil a former partner for cooperation in the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency
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"STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-62
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"STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program. STS-59 ground controllers finished activating the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C (SIR-C) and began processing its first images of the Earth, while engineers working with the X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (X-SAR) worked their way through some initial activation problems." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-59
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"STS-65 was a Space Shuttle program mission of Columbia launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 8 July 1994. The commander of this flight was Robert D. Cabana who would go on later to lead the Kennedy Space Center. The International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2) was the second in a series of Spacelab (SL) flights designed to conduct research in a microgravity environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-65
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"STS-64 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission that was set to perform multiple experiment packages. STS-64 was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 9 September 1994, and landed back on 20 September 1994 at Edwards Air Force Base. STS-64 marked the first flight of Lidar In-space Technology Experiment (LITE) and the first untethered U.S. extravehicular activity (EVA) in 10 years." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-64
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"STS-68 was a human spaceflight mission using Space Shuttle Endeavour that launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 30 September 1994. The primary payload on this flight is the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL-2), making its second flight to study the Earth's environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-68
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"STS-66 was a Space Shuttle program mission that was flown by the Space Shuttle Atlantis.STS-66 launched on 3 November 1994 at 11:59:43.060 am EDT from Launch Pad 39-B at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. Atlantis landed at Edwards Air Force Base on 14 November 1994 at 10:33:45 am EST.The ATLAS-03 was the primary payload aboard STS-66.It continued the series of Spacelab flights to study the energy of the sun and how it affects the Earth's climate and environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-66
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"The Caldwell catalogue is an astronomical catalogue of 109 star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies for observation by amateur astronomers. The list was compiled by Patrick Moore as a complement to the Messier catalogue." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldwell_catalogue
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"DVD (abbreviation for Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed in 1995 and released in late 1996. The medium can store any kind of digital data and is widely used for software and other computer files as well as video programs watched using DVD players. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD
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"STS-63 was the second mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, which carried out the first rendezvous of the American Space Shuttle with Russia's space station Mir. Known as the 'Near-Mir' mission, the flight used Space Shuttle Discovery, which lifted off from launch pad 39B on 3 February 1995 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-63
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"Eileen Marie Collins (born November 19, 1956) is a retired NASA astronaut and United States Air Force colonel. A former military instructor and test pilot, Collins was the first female pilot and first female commander of a Space Shuttle. She was awarded several medals for her work. Colonel Collins has logged 38 days 8 hours and 20 minutes in outer space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileen_Collins
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"The Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) is a European Space Agency (ESA) experimental suborbital re-entry vehicle. It was developed to serve as a prototype spaceplane to validate the ESA's work in the field of reusable launchers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_eXperimental_Vehicle
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"STS-67 was a human spaceflight mission using Space Shuttle Endeavour that launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 2 March 1995.The Astro-2 Spacelab consisted of three unique instruments – the Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT), the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) and the Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-67
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"Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) is a website provided by NASA and Michigan Technological University (MTU). According to the website, "Each day a different image or photograph of our universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day
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"STS-71 was the third mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program and the first Space Shuttle docking to Russian space station Mir. It started on 27 June 1995 with the launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis from launch pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Shuttle delivered a relief crew of two cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin to the station and recovered Increment astronaut Norman Thagard." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-71
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"The crew, consisting of Russian cosmonauts Anatoly Solovyev and Nikolai Budarin, launched on June 27, 1995 aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-71 mission. After remaining aboard Mir for approximately 75 days, Solovyev and Budarin returned aboard the Soyuz TM-21 spacecraft on September 11, 1995." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-19
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"STS-70 was the 21st flight of the Space Shuttle Discovery, and the last of 7 shuttle missions to carry a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS). This was the first shuttle mission controlled from the new mission control center room at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. STS-70 was also the first flight of the new Block 1 orbiter main engine, designed to improve both engine performance and safety." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-70
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"Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp discovered Comet Hale–Bopp separately on July 23, 1995 before it became visible to the naked eye. It is difficult to predict the maximum brightness of new comets with any degree of certainty, but Hale–Bopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1, 1997." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Hale%E2%80%93Bopp
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"Mir EO-20 crew: Commander Russia Yuri Gidzenko First spaceflight
Flight Engineer Russia Sergei Avdeyev Second spaceflight
Flight Engineer Germany Thomas Reiter First spaceflight" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TM-22 -
"STS-69 was a Space Shuttle Endeavour mission, and the second flight of the Wake Shield Facility (WSF). The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 7 September 1995. It was the 100th successful crewed NASA spaceflight, not including X-15 flights." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-69
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"51 Pegasi b (abbreviated 51 Peg b), unofficially dubbed Bellerophon /bɛˈlɛrəfɒn/, later formally named Dimidium /dɪˈmɪdiəm/, is an extrasolar planet approximately 50 light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus. It was the first exoplanet to be discovered orbiting a main-sequence star, the Sun-like 51 Pegasi, and marked a breakthrough in astronomical research. It is the prototype for a class of planets called hot Jupiters." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51_Pegasi_b
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"STS-73 was a Space Shuttle program mission, during October–November 1995, on board the Space Shuttle Columbia. The mission was the second mission for the United States Microgravity Laboratory. The crew, who spent 16 days in space, were broken up into 2 teams, the red team and the blue team. The mission also included several Detailed Test Objectives or DTO's." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-73
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"STS-74 was the fourth mission of the US/Russian Shuttle-Mir Program, and the second docking of the Space Shuttle with Mir. Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off from Kennedy Space Center launch pad 39A on 12 November 1995. The mission ended 8 days later with the landing of Atlantis back at Kennedy. It was the second in a series of seven straight missions to the station flown by Atlantis." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-74
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"The Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) was a space telescope for infrared light designed and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), in cooperation with ISAS (now part of JAXA) and NASA. The ISO was designed to study infrared light at wavelengths of 2.5 to 240 micrometres and operated from 1995 to 1998." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Space_Observatory
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"The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is a spacecraft built by a European industrial consortium led by Matra Marconi Space (now Airbus Defence and Space) that was launched on a Lockheed Martin Atlas II AS launch vehicle on December 2, 1995, to study the Sun. It has also discovered over 3,000 comets." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory
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"DRAKON is an algorithmic visual programming and modeling language developed within the Buran space project following ergonomic design principles. The language provides a uniform way to represent flowcharts of any complexity that are easy to read and understand." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAKON
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"STS-72 was a Space Shuttle Endeavour mission to capture and return to Earth a Japanese microgravity research spacecraft known as Space Flyer Unit (SFU). The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 11 January 1996." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-72
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"The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous – Shoemaker (NEAR Shoemaker), renamed after its 1996 launch in honor of planetary scientist Eugene Shoemaker, was a robotic space probe designed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for NASA to study the near-Earth asteroid Eros from close orbit over a period of a year." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEAR_Shoemaker
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"Gonets (Russian Гонец, for Messenger) is a Russian civilian low Earth orbit communications satellite system. It consists of a number of satellites, derived from Strela military communications satellites. The first two satellites, which were used to test and validate the system, were launched by a Tsyklon-3 carrier rocket from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome on 13 July 1992, and were designated Gonets-D." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonets
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"The crew consisted of two Russian cosmonauts, Commander Yuri Onufrienko and Yury Usachov, as well as American astronaut Shannon Lucid. Lucid arrived at the station about a month into the expedition, and left about a week following its conclusion; NASA refers to her mission as NASA-2. She was the second American to have a long-duration stay aboard Mir, the first being Norman Thagard, as a crew member of Mir EO-18; he stayed on the station for 111 days." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-21
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"STS-75 was a United States NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 19th mission of the Columbia orbiter. The primary objective of STS-75 was to carry the Tethered Satellite System Reflight (TSS-1R) into orbit and to deploy it spaceward on a conducting tether. The mission also flew the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP-3) designed to investigate materials science and condensed matter physics." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-75
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"STS-76 was NASA's 76th Space Shuttle mission, and the 16th mission for Atlantis. STS-76 launched on 22 March 1996 at 3:13 am EST (UTC −5) from Kennedy Space Center launch pad 39B. The flight was the third Shuttle mission to dock with the Russian Space Station Mir, as part of the Shuttle-Mir Program, carrying astronaut Shannon Lucid to the orbital laboratory to replace NASA astronaut Norm Thagard." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-76
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"The Progress Rocket Space Centre (Russian: Ракетно-космический центр «Прогресс»), formerly known as TsSKB-Progress (Russian: ЦСКБ-Прогресс), is a Russian joint-stock company under the jurisdiction of Roscosmos State Corporation responsible for space science and aerospace research. It is the developer of the famous Soyuz-FG rocket used for manned space flight, as well as the Soyuz-U used for launching unmanned probes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_Rocket_Space_Centre
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"STS-77 was the 77th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th mission of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission began from launch pad 39B from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 19 May 1996 lasting 10 days and 40 minutes and completing 161 revolutions before landing on runway 33." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-77
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"STS-78 was the fifth dedicated Life and Microgravity Spacelab mission for the Space Shuttle program, flown partly in preparation for the International Space Station project. The mission used the Space Shuttle Columbia, which lifted off successfully from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Pad 39B on 20 June 1996. This marked the 78th flight of the Space Shuttle and 20th mission for Columbia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-78
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"STS-79 was the 17th flight of Space Shuttle Atlantis, and the 79th mission of the Space Shuttle program. The flight saw Atlantis dock with the Russian space station Mir to deliver equipment, supplies and relief personnel. A variety of scientific experiments were also conducted aboard Atlantis by her crew. It was the first shuttle mission to rendezvous with a fully assembled Mir, and the fourth rendezvous of a shuttle to the space station ." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-79
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"Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) was an American robotic spacecraft developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and launched November 1996. Mars Global Surveyor was a global mapping mission that examined the entire planet, from the ionosphere down through the atmosphere to the surface." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyor
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"STS-80 was a Space Shuttle mission flown by Space Shuttle Columbia. The launch was originally scheduled for 31 October 1996, but was delayed to 19 November for several reasons.Columbia brought with it two free floating satellites, both of which were on repeat visits to space. Also, a variety of equipment to be tested on two planned spacewalks was part of the payload. These would have been used to prepare for construction of the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-80
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"Mars Pathfinder (MESUR Pathfinder) is an American robotic spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars in 1997. It consisted of a lander, renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station, and a lightweight (10.6 kg/23 lb) wheeled robotic Mars rover named Sojourner, which became the first rover to operate outside the Earth–Moon system." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder
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"Huygens was an atmospheric entry probe that landed successfully on Saturn's moon Titan in 2005. Built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), it was part of the Cassini–Huygens mission and became the first spacecraft to land on Titan and the farthest landing from Earth a spacecraft has ever made. The probe was named after the Dutch 17th-century astronomer Christiaan Huygens, who discovered Titan in 1655." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens_(spacecraft)
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"MP3 was introduced as an audio coding standard in 1994. It was based on several audio data compression techniques, including the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), FFT and psychoacoustic methods.In 1997, the world's first MP3 player, the MPMan F10, was developed by a South Korean company SaeHan Information Systems." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_player
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"STS-81 was the fifth of nine planned missions to Mir and the second one involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. Astronaut John Blaha, who had been on Mir since September 19 1996, was replaced by astronaut Jerry Linenger. Atlantis carried the SPACEHAB double module providing additional middeck locker space for secondary experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-81
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"This mission was part of the Shuttle-Mir Program, in which three American astronauts flew aboard the station during Mir EO-23." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-23
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"STS-82 was the 22nd flight of the Space Shuttle Discovery and the 82nd mission of the Space Shuttle program. It was NASA's second mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope, during which Discovery's crew repaired and upgraded the telescope's scientific instruments, increasing its research capabilities and achieved the highest altitude ever attained by a STS Orbiter (335-nautical-mile (620 km))." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-82
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"STS-83 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission flown by Columbia. It was a science research mission that achieved orbit successfully, but the planned duration was a failure due to a technical problem with a fuel cell that resulted in the abort of the 15 day duration. Columbia returned to Earth just shy of four days. It was re-done on STS-94 with the same crew later that year." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-83
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"The STS-84 mission was the sixth Shuttle/Mir docking mission and is part of the NASA/Mir program which consisted of nine Shuttle-Mir dockings and seven long duration flights of U.S. astronauts aboard the Russian space station. The prior Shuttle-Mir missions were STS-71, STS-74, STS-76, STS-79 and STS-81." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-84
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"STS-94 was flown by the same crew that flew STS-83, the only time in the history of human spaceflight that two missions with more than one crewmember had exactly the same crew." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-94
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"This mission was part of the Shuttle-Mir Program, in which three American astronauts flew aboard the station during Mir EO-24." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_EO-24
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"STS-85 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform multiple space science packages. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 7 August 1997. A major experiment was the CRISTA-SPAS free-flyer which had various telescopes on board." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-85
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"Sycorax /ˈsɪkɒræks/ is the largest retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. Sycorax was discovered on 6 September 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars using the 200-inch Hale telescope, together with Caliban, and given the temporary designation S/1997 U 2" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycorax_(moon)
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"Caliban /ˈkælɪbæn/ is the second-largest retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered on 6 September 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars using the 200-inch Hale telescope together with Sycorax and given the temporary designation S/1997 U 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliban_(moon)
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"STS-86 was a Space Shuttle Atlantis mission to the Mir space station. This was the last Atlantis mission before it was taken out of service temporarily for maintenance and upgrades, including the glass cockpit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-86
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"The Cassini–Huygens space-research mission, commonly called Cassini, involved a collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, including its rings and natural satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens
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"STS-87 was a Space Shuttle mission launched from Launch Complex 39B of the Kennedy Space Center on 19 November 1997. It was the 88th flight of the Space Shuttle, and the 24th flight of Columbia. The mission goals were to conduct experiments using the United States Microgravity Payload (USMP-4), conduct two EVAs, and to deploy the SPARTAN-201 experiment. This mission marked the first time an EVA was performed from Columbia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-87
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"Kalpana Chawla (March 17, 1962 – February 1, 2003) was an American astronaut, engineer, and the first woman of Indian origin to go to space.She first flew on Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator. In 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster when the spacecraft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpana_Chawla
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"The accelerated expansion was discovered during 1998, by two independent projects, the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team, which both used distant type Ia supernovae to measure the acceleration." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerating_expansion_of_the_universe
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"In March 1998 , the International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s)(=12.5 megabytes per second) for high mobility communication" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4G
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"An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address
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"Lunar Prospector was the third mission selected by NASA for full development and construction as part of the Discovery Program. At a cost of $62.8 million, the 19-month mission was designed for a low polar orbit investigation of the Moon, including mapping of surface composition including polar ice deposits, measurements of magnetic and gravity fields, and study of lunar outgassing events." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Prospector
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"STS-89 was a Space Shuttle mission to the Mir space station flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 22 January 1998.STS-89 was the eighth of nine planned missions to Mir and the fifth involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. Astronaut David Wolf, who had been on Mir since late September 1997, was replaced by Astronaut Andrew Thomas. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-89
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"A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes is a popular-science book on cosmology (the study of the origin and evolution of the universe) by British physicist Stephen Hawking.[1] It was first published in 1988. Hawking wrote the book for readers who have no prior knowledge of the universe and people who are just interested in learning something new." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Brief_History_of_Time
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"STS-90 was a 1998 Space Shuttle mission flown by the Space Shuttle Columbia. The 16-day mission marked the last flight of the European Space Agency's Spacelab laboratory module, which had first flown on Columbia on STS-9, and was also the last daytime landing for Columbia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-90
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"STS-91 was the final Space Shuttle mission to the Mir space station. It was flown by Space Shuttle Discovery, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 2 June 1998.STS-91 marked the final Shuttle/Mir Docking Mission. This Phase 1 Program was a precursor to the International Space Station maintaining a continuous American presence in space and developing the procedures and hardware required for an international partnership in space" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-91
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"The Advanced Reentry Demonstrator (ARD) was a European Space Agency (ESA) suborbital reentry vehicle. It was developed and operated for experimental purposes, specifically to validate the multiple reentry technologies integrated upon it and the vehicle's overall design, as well as to gain greater insight into the various phenomenon encountered during reentry." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Reentry_Demonstrator
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"The Iridium satellite constellation provides L band voice and data information coverage to satellite phones, pagers and integrated transceivers over the entire Earth surface. Iridium Communications owns and operates the constellation, additionally selling equipment and access to its services. It was conceived by Bary Bertiger, Raymond J. Leopold and Ken Peterson in late 1987." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridium_satellite_constellation
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"STS-95 was a Space Shuttle mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 29 October 1998, using the orbiter Discovery. It was the 25th flight of Discovery and the 92nd mission flown since the start of the Space Shuttle program in April 1981. It was a highly publicized mission due to former Project Mercury astronaut and United States Senator John H. Glenn Jr.'s return to space for his second space flight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-95
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"The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit. The ISS programme is a multi-national collaborative project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).[6][7] The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station
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"Zarya (Russian: Заря́, lit. 'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian: "Функционально-грузовой блок", lit. 'Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok' or ФГБ), is the first module of the International Space Station to have been launched.[2] The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarya
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"STS-88 was the first Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour, and took the first American module, the Unity node, to the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-88
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"The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is a payload imaging sensor built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing[1] that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 on board the Terra (EOS AM) satellite, and in 2002 on board the Aqua (EOS PM) satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderate_Resolution_Imaging_Spectroradiometer
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"Prior to the 1-inch Microdrive, a 1.3-inch HDD was developed and launched in 1992 by HP with a capacity of 20 MB. These units weighed about 28 g (1 oz), with dimensions of 2.0" × 1.44" × 0.414" (50.8 mm × 36.5 mm × 10.5 mm) and were the physically smallest hard drives in the world before the Microdrive.In 1999, IBM launched the first generation 1-inch Microdrive with storage capacities of 170 MB and 340 MB." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdrive#History
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"NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999. It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public. It is funded with public money, as authorized by the U.S.Congress, and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Earth_Observatory
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"The Mars Polar Lander, also known as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a 290-kilogram robotic spacecraft lander launched by NASA on January 3, 1999 to study the soil and climate of Planum Australe, a region near the south pole on Mars. It formed part of the Mars Surveyor '98 mission. "
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"Stardust was a 390-kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on 7 February 1999. Its primary mission was to collect dust samples from the coma of comet Wild 2, as well as samples of cosmic dust, and return these to Earth for analysis. It was the first sample return mission of its kind. En route to comet Wild 2, the craft also flew by and studied the asteroid 5535 Annefrank." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_(spacecraft)
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"Perdita /ˈpɜːrdɪtə/ is an inner satellite of Uranus. Perdita's discovery was complicated. The first photographs of Perdita were taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft in 1986, but it was not recognized from the photographs for more than a decade. In 1999, the moon was noticed by Erich Karkoschka and reported. But because no further pictures could be taken to confirm its existence, it was officially demoted in 2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdita_(moon)
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"STS-96 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Discovery, and the first shuttle flight to dock at the International Space Station. The shuttle carried the Spacehab module in the payload, filled with cargo for station outfitting. STS-96 launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 May 1999 at 06:49:42 AM EDT and returned to Kennedy on June 6, 1999, 2:02:43 AM EDT." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-96
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"The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) is a space-based telescope operated by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. FUSE was launched on a Delta II rocket on 24 June 1999, as a part of NASA's Origins program. FUSE detected light in the far ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 90.5–119.5 nanometres, which is mostly unobservable by other telescopes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Ultraviolet_Spectroscopic_Explorer
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"Setebos /ˈsɛtɛbʌs/ is one of the outermost retrograde irregular satellites of Uranus. It was discovered on 18 July 1999 by John J. Kavelaars et al. and provisionally designated S/1999 U 1.Confirmed as Uranus XIX, it is named after the god worshipped by Caliban and Sycorax in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setebos_(moon)
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"Prospero is a relatively small retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus discovered on 18 July 1999 by the astrophysicist Matthew Holman and his team, and given the provisional designation S/1999 U 3. Confirmed as Uranus XVIII it was named after the sorcerer Prospero in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest.The orbital parameters suggest that it may belong to the same dynamic cluster as Sycorax and Setebos, suggesting common origin" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospero_(moon)
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"It is a Flagship-class space telescope launched aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. Chandra is sensitive to X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope, enabled by the high angular resolution of its mirrors." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory
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"STS-93 in 1999 marked the 95th launch of the Space Shuttle, the 26th launch of Columbia, and the 21st night launch of a Space Shuttle. Eileen Collins became the first female shuttle Commander on this flight. Its primary payload was the Chandra X-ray Observatory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-93#Mission_objectives
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"Stephano /ˈstɛfənoʊ/ is a retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 1999, and given the provisional designation S/1999 U 2.Confirmed as Uranus XX, it was named after the drunken butler in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest in August 2000" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephano_(moon)
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"Callirrhoe (/kəˈlɪroʊ.iː/;Greek: Καλλιρρόη), also known as Jupiter XVII, is one of Jupiter's outer natural satellites. It is an irregular moon that orbits in a retrograde direction. Callirrhoe was imaged by Spacewatch at Kitt Peak National Observatory from October 6 through November 4, 1999, and originally designated as asteroid (1999 UX18)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callirrhoe_(moon)
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"XMM-Newton, also known as the High Throughput X-ray Spectroscopy Mission and the X-ray Multi-Mirror Mission, is an X-ray space observatory launched by the European Space Agency in December 1999 on an Ariane 5 rocket. It is the second cornerstone mission of ESA's Horizon 2000 programme. Named after physicist and astronomer Sir Isaac Newton, the spacecraft is tasked with investigating interstellar X-ray sources." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMM-Newton
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"The multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer (MISR) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on 18 December 1999. This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system (planetary surface and atmosphere) in various directions and spectral bands; it became operational in February 2000." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-angle_imaging_spectroradiometer
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"STS-103 was a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission by Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 19 December 1999 and returned on 27 December 1999. It was also the last Shuttle launch of the 1990s.The primary objective of STS-103 was the Hubble Servicing Mission 3A." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-103
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"Pascal Lee, a former NASA research engineer designed this Mars flag in 1999. It was flown into space on STS-103 by astronaut John M. Grunsfeld. The sequence of colors, from red, to green, and finally blue, represent the transformation of Mars from a lifeless planet to one teeming with life, as inspired by Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy of novels. It is also flown at the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station, on behalf of the Mars Society." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Mars
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"The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is an international research effort that obtained digital elevation models on a near-global scale from 56°S to 60°N, to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Radar_Topography_Mission
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"STS-99 was a Space Shuttle mission using Endeavour, that launched on 11 February 2000 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The primary objective of the mission was the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) project. This was also the last solo flight of Endeavour; all future flights for Endeavour became devoted to the International Space Station. This was also the first shuttle mission of the 2000s." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-99
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"IMAGE (Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration) is a NASA Medium Explorers mission that studied the global response of the Earth's magnetosphere to changes in the solar wind. It was believed lost but as of August 2018 might be recoverable. It was launched March 25, 2000 by a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg AFB on a two-year mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAGE_(spacecraft)
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"Mir EO-28, was a Soyuz mission, the 39th and final human spaceflight to the Mir space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TM-30
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"STS-101 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. The mission was a 10-day mission conducted between 19 May 2000 and 29 May 2000. The mission was designated 2A.2a and was a resupply mission to the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-101
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"Zvezda (Russian: Звезда́, meaning "star"), Salyut DOS-8, also known as the Zvezda Service Module, is a module of the International Space Station (ISS). It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvezda_(ISS_module)
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"Kiviuq is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by J. J. Kavelaarsin 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 5It was named after Kiviuq, a hero of Inuit mythology.Kiviuq is about 16–17 km in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 11.1 million kilometers in 450 days. It is a member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiviuq_(moon)
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"Paaliaq was named in August 2003 after a fictional shaman in the book The Curse of the Shaman, written by Michael Kusugak, who supplied Kavelaars with the names of giants from Inuit mythology that were used for other Saturnian moons" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paaliaq
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" Ymir /ˈiːmɪər/, or Saturn XIX, is a retrograde irregular moon of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 1. It was named in August 2003, from Norse mythology, where Ymir is the ancestor of all the Jotuns or frost giants Of the moons that take more than 3 Earth years to orbit Saturn, Ymir is the largest, at about 18 kilometres (11 miles) in diameter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymir_(moon)
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"Cluster II is a space mission of the European Space Agency, with NASA participation, to study the Earth's magnetosphere over the course of nearly two solar cycles. The mission is composed of four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_II_(spacecraft)
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"STS-106 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Space Station assembly flight ISS-2A.2b utilized the SPACEHAB Double Module and the Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC) to bring supplies to the station. The mission also included one spacewalk." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-106
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"Siarnaq, or Saturn XXIX, is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by J. J. Kavelaars, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 3. Named after the giant Siarnaq of Inuit mythology, it is the largest member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siarnaq
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"Tarvos /ˈtɑːrvɒs/, or Saturn XXI, is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by John J. Kavelaars et al. on September 23, 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 4. The name, given in August 2003, is after Tarvos, a deity depicted as a bull god carrying three cranes alongside its back from Gaulish mythology" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarvos_(moon)
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"Ijiraq, or Saturn XXII (22), is a small prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by the team of Brett Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 6.It was named in 2003 after the ijiraq, a creature in Inuit mythology" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijiraq_(moon)
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"Skathi /ˈskɑːði/, or Saturn XXVII, is a natural satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett Gladman, Kavelaars and colleagues in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 8.Skathi is about 8 kilometres in diameter and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 15.576 Gm in 725.784 days, at an inclination of 149° to the ecliptic (150° to Saturn's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.246." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skathi_(moon)
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"Suttungr /ˈsʊtʊŋər/, or Saturn XXIII, is a natural satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 12. It was named for Suttungr in Norse mythology, a Jötunn or giant who once owned the mead of poetry.Suttungr is about 7 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 19,667 Mm in 1029.703 days. It may have formed from debris knocked off Phoebe."
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"Thrymr /ˈθrɪmər/, or Saturn XXX, is a natural satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Gladman and colleagues in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 7. Its name comes from Norse mythology, where Thrymr is a Jotun.Thrymr is about 7 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 20,810 Mm in 1120.809 days. It may have formed from debris knocked off Phoebe." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrymr_(moon)
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"Mundilfari, or Saturn XXV, is a natural satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 9. Mundilfari is about 7 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 18,360 Mm in 928.806 days, at an inclination of 170° to the ecliptic (150° to Saturn's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.198.Its rotation period is 6.74±0.08 hours." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundilfari_(moon)
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"The first truss piece, the Z1 truss, launched aboard STS-92 in October 2000. It contains the control moment gyroscope (CMG) assemblies, electrical wiring, communications equipment, and two plasma contactors designed to neutralize the static electrical charge of the space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#Z1_truss
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"STS-92 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Discovery. STS-92 marked the 100th mission of the Space Shuttle. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 11 October 2000. STS-92 was an ISS assembly flight that brought the Z1 truss, Control Moment Gyros, Pressurized Mating Adapter-3 (PMA-3) (mounted on a Spacelab pallet) and two DDCU (Heat pipes) to the space station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-92
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"Expedition 1 was the first long-duration stay on the ISS. The three-person crew stayed aboard the station for 136 days. It was the beginning of an uninterrupted human presence on the station.The Expedition 1 crew consisted of an American commander and two Russians. The commander, Bill Shepherd, had been in space three times before, all on shuttle missions which lasted at most a week. The Russians, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei K. Krikalev," https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_1
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"Kalyke /ˈkælɪkiː/, also known as Jupiter XXIII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalyke"
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"Erinome, also known as Jupiter XXV, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 4." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erinome
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"Harpalyke /hɑːrˈpælɪkiː/, also known as Jupiter XXII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 5.In August 2003, the moon was named after Harpalyke, the incestuous daughter of Clymenus, who in some accounts was also a lover of Zeus (Jupiter)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpalyke_(moon)
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"Praxidike /prækˈsɪdɪkiː/, also known as Jupiter XXVII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 7.It was named in August 2003 after Praxidice, the Greek goddess of punishment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxidike_(moon)
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"Iocaste, also known as Jupiter XXIV, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 3.ocaste orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20.723 million kilometers in 609.427 days, at an inclination of 147° to the ecliptic (146° to Jupiter's equator) with an eccentricity of 0.2874." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iocaste_(moon)
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"Isonoe /aɪˈsɒnoʊ.iː/, also known as Jupiter XXVI, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 6." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isonoe_(moon)
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"Megaclite /mɛɡəˈklaɪtiː/, also known as Jupiter XIX, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 8." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaclite_(moon)
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"Taygete /teɪˈɪdʒɪtiː/, also known as Jupiter XX, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 9." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taygete_(moon)
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"Chaldene /kælˈdiːniː/, also known as Jupiter XXI, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al., in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 J 10" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldene
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"STS-97 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. The crew installed the first set of solar arrays to the ISS, prepared a docking port for arrival of the Destiny Laboratory Module, and delivered supplies for the station's crew. It was the last human spaceflight of the 20th century." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-97
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"Dia /ˈdaɪ.ə/, also known as Jupiter LIII, is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. Provisionally known as S/2000 J 11, it received its name on March 7, 2015. It is named after Dia, daughter of Deioneus (or Eioneus), wife of Ixion. According to Homer, she was seduced by Zeus in stallion form; Pirithous was the issue." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldene
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"Erriapus /ɛriˈæpəs/, or Saturn XXVIII (28), is a prograde irregular satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by Brett Gladman, John J. Kavelaars and colleagues in 2000, and given the temporary designation S/2000 S 10. It was named Erriapo in August 2003 after Erriapus (also rendered Erriappus), a giant in Gaulish mythology; the name was changed from dative Erriapo to nominative Erriapus per IAU conventions in late 2007" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erriapus
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"The first European pre-commercial network was an UMTS network on the Isle of Man by Manx Telecom, the operator then owned by British Telecom, and the first commercial network (also UMTS based W-CDMA) in Europe was opened for business by Telenor in December 2001 with no commercial handsets and thus no paying customers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G#History
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"Living With a Star (LWS) is a NASA scientific program to study those aspects of the connected Sun-Earth system that directly affect life and society. LWS is a crosscutting initiative with goals and objectives relevant to NASA's Exploration Initiative, as well as to NASA's Strategic Enterprises. The program is managed by the Heliophysics Science Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_With_a_Star
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"The Aurora programme (sometimes called Aurora Exploration Programme, or simply Exploration Programme) is a human spaceflight programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) established in 2001. The objective is to formulate and then to implement a European long-term plan for exploration of the Solar System using robotic spacecraft and human spaceflight to investigate bodies holding promise for traces of life beyond the Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_programme
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"The Destiny module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the International Space Station (ISS). It was berthed to the Unity module and activated over a period of five days in February, 2001. Destiny is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny_(ISS_module)
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"STS-98 was a 2001 Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the first human spaceflight launch of the 21st century. STS-98 delivered to the station the Destiny Laboratory Module. All mission objectives were completed and the shuttle reentered and landed safely at Edwards Air Force Base on 20 February 2001,after twelve days in space, six of which were spent docked to the ISS." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-98
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"STS-102 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Discovery and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. STS-102 flew in March 2001; its primary objectives were resupplying the ISS and rotating the Expedition 1 and Expedition 2 crews." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-102
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"Orbital replacement units (or on-orbit replaceable unit:21) (ORUs) are key elements of the International Space Station that can be readily replaced when the unit either passes its design life or fails.ORUs are parts of the main systems and subsystems of the external elements of the ISS, none are intended to be installed inside the pressurised modules.Examples of ORUs are: pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_replacement_unit
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"Human Research Facility 1 (HRF-1) on board the International Space Station (ISS) allows investigators to study the effects of long-duration space flight on the human body. Equipment in the HRF-1 includes a clinical ultrasound and a device for measuring mass." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Research_Facility_1
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"Expedition 2 (also called ISS EO-2).The crew consisted of one Russian, Commander Yury Usachev, and two American flight engineers Susan Helms and James Voss.Two science racks, known as EXPRESS Racks No. 1 and 2, were delivered to the station in April aboard STS-100. One of the experiments on EXPRESS Rack No. 2 was the Experiment of Physics of Colloids in Space.[NASA 12] Several different colloid mixtures were studied, and the analysis is still underway" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_2
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"The first of the external stowage platforms, called ESP-1, was installed on the port side trunnion pin on the outer hull of the Destiny Laboratory Module on March 13, 2001 during the second EVA of the STS-102 Space Shuttle mission.It is powered by the Unity Module and has two attach points to store ORUs." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_stowage_platform
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"The deorbit of Mir was the controlled atmospheric re-entry of the modular Russian space station Mir which was carried out on 23 March 2001. Major components ranged from about 5 to 15 years in age, and included the Mir Core Module, Kvant-1, Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr, Priroda, and Docking Module. Although Russia was optimistic about Mir's future, the country's commitments to the International Space Station project left no funding to support Mir." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deorbit_of_Mir
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"2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft orbiting the planet Mars. The project was developed by NASA, and contracted out to Lockheed Martin, with an expected cost for the entire mission of US$297 million. Its mission is to use spectrometers and a thermal imager to detect evidence of past or present water and ice, as well as study the planet's geology and radiation environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey
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"STS-100 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. STS-100 launch on 19 April 2001, and installed the ISS Canadarm2 robotic arm." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-100
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"The Mobile Servicing System (MSS) is a robotic system on board the International Space Station (ISS). Launched to the ISS in 2001, it plays a key role in station assembly and maintenance; it moves equipment and supplies around the station, supports astronauts working in space, and services instruments and other payloads attached to the ISS and is used for external maintenance." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Servicing_System#Canadarm2
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"The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) – the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe
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"STS-104 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Its primary objectives were to install the Quest Joint Airlock and help perform maintenance on the International Space Station. It was successful and returned to Earth without incident, after a successful docking, equipment installation and three spacewalks." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-104
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"Artemis was a geostationary earth orbit satellite (GEOS) for telecommunications, built by Alenia Spazio for ESA. The Artemis satellite operated at the 21.5E orbital position until 2016, when it was moved to 123E to cover the L-Band spectrum rights for Indonesia's Ministry of Defense." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_(satellite)
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"The Quest Joint Airlock, previously known as the Joint Airlock Module, is the primary airlock for the International Space Station. Quest was designed to host spacewalks with both Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuits and Orlan space suits. The airlock was launched on STS-104 on July 14, 2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest_Joint_Airlock
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"Genesis was a NASA sample-return probe that collected a sample of solar wind particles and returned them to Earth for analysis. It was the first NASA sample-return mission to return material since the Apollo program, and the first to return material from beyond the orbit of the Moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(spacecraft)
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"STS-105 was a mission of the Space Shuttle Discovery to the International Space Station, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 10 August 2001. This mission was Discovery's final mission until STS-114, because Discovery was grounded for a refit, and then all Shuttles were grounded in the wake of the Columbia disaster." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-105
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"Expedition 3 was the third expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Frank L. Culbertson Jr. was the only American crew member, and as such the only American not on Earth during the 9/11 attacks, which the crew photographed and videoed from the ISS, Vladimir Dezhurov, RSA and Mikhail Tyurin, RSA. The Expedition Three crew of the International Space Station enjoyed a unique view of the 2001 Leonid meteor storm." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_3
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"Trinculo /ˈtrɪŋkjʊloʊ/ is a retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered by a group of astronomers led by Holman, et al. on 13 August 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 U 1.Confirmed as Uranus XXI, it was named after the drunken jester Trinculo in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest. Trinculo is the smallest of Uranus' 27 moons and is approximately only 18 km wide and is roughly the size of Manhattan Island." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinculo_(moon)
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"Ferdinand is the outermost retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was first seen near Uranus by Matthew J. Holman, John J. Kavelaars, Dan Milisavljevic, and Brett J. Gladman on August 13, 2001 and reobserved on September 21, 2001. The object was then lost with no confirmation it was actually orbiting around Uranus." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_(moon)
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"Francisco is the innermost irregular satellite of Uranus
Francisco was discovered by Matthew J. Holman, et al. and Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2003 from pictures taken in 2001 and given the provisional designation S/2001 U 3. Confirmed as Uranus XXII, it was named after a lord in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_(moon) -
"PROBA (Project for On-Board Autonomy), renamed PROBA-1, is a Belgian satellite launched atop an Indian Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle by ISRO on 22 October 2001. The satellite was funded through the ESA's MicroSat program. This small (60×60×80 cm; 95 kg) boxlike system, with solar panel collectors on its surface, has remarkable image-making qualities. It hosts two Earth Observation instruments dubbed CHRIS and HRC." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA
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"STS-108 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. Its primary objective was to deliver supplies to and help maintain the ISS.STS-108 was the 12th shuttle flight to visit the International Space Station and the first since the installation of the Russian airlock called Pirs on the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-108
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"The International Space Station expanded its science investigations, almost doubling the previous amount of experiments performed during the Expedition Four mission. The crew Yury Onufrienko, RSA, Daniel W. Bursch, NASA, Carl E. Walz, NASA. The crew launched on 5 December 2001 on board Space Shuttle Endeavour during mission STS-108." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_4
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"Jason-1 was a satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation, study the ties between the ocean and the atmosphere, improve global climate forecasts and predictions, and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean eddies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason-1
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"It is an orbiter mission dedicated to study the dynamics of the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) portion of the Earth's atmosphere. The mission was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on December 7, 2001 aboard a Delta II rocket launch vehicle. The project is sponsored and managed by NASA, while the spacecraft was designed and assembled by the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIMED
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"Sponde /ˈspɒndiː/, also known as Jupiter XXXVI, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 5." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponde
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"Kale /ˈkeɪliː/, also known as Jupiter XXXVII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered in 2001 by astronomers Scott S. Sheppard, D. Jewitt, and J. Kleyna, and was originally designated as S/2001 J 8.." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kale_(moon)
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"Hermippe /hɜːrˈmɪpiː/, or Jupiter XXX, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the Institute for Astronomy of the University of Hawaii led by David Jewitt and Scott S. Sheppard and Jan Kleyna in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 3" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermippe_(moon)
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"Autonoe was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonoe_(moon)
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"Euanthe /juːˈænθiː/, also known as Jupiter XXXIII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 7" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euanthe_(moon)
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"Aitne /ˈeɪtniː/, also known as Jupiter XXXI, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 11. Aitne belongs to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitne_(moon)
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"Thyone /θaɪˈoʊniː/, also known as Jupiter XXIX, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 2" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyone_(moon)
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"Pasithee /ˈpæsɪθiː/, also known as Jupiter XXXVIII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 6" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasithee_(moon)
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"Orthosie /ɔːrˈθoʊziː/, also known as Jupiter XXXV, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 9." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthosie_(moon)
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"Euporie /ˈjuːpəriː/, also known as Jupiter XXXIV, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation S/2001 J 10." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euporie_(moon)
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"The National Space Agency (Malay: Agensi Angkasa Negara), abbreviated ANGKASA, is the national space agency of Malaysia. It was established in 2002 and its charter includes aims to upgrade, stimulate and foster the country's space programme through integrated and coordinated efforts by developing and applying space technologies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Agency_(Malaysia)
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"The automatic identification system (AIS) is an automatic tracking system that uses transponders on ships and is used by vessel traffic services (VTS). When satellites are used to detect AIS signatures, the term Satellite-AIS (S-AIS) is used.The 2002 IMO SOLAS Agreement included a mandate that required most vessels over 300GT on international voyages to fit a Class A type AIS transceiver." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_system
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"On February 1, 2002, Chinese astronomer Zhang Daqing from Kaifeng discovered a new comet in the constellation Cetus, and reported it to the IAU. He found that Japanese astronomer Kaoru Ikeya had discovered it earlier than he had, as the time of sunset is earlier than China. According to tradition, since they discovered the new comet independently, the comet was named after both of them." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comet-Ikeya-Zhang.jpeg
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"Envisat ("Environmental Satellite") is a large inactive Earth-observing satellite which is still in orbit. Operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), it was the world's largest civilian Earth observation satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envisat
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"STS-109 (SM3B) was a Space Shuttle mission that launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 1 March 2002. It was the 108th mission of the Space Shuttle program, the 27th flight of the orbiter Columbia and the fourth servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-109
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"The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRACE_and_GRACE-FO
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"STS-110 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) on 8–19 April 2002 flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. The main purpose was to install the S0 Truss segment, which forms the backbone of the truss structure on the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-110
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"The S0 truss, (also called the Center Integrated Truss Assembly Starboard 0 Truss) forms the center backbone of the Space Station. It was attached on the top of the Destiny Laboratory Module during STS-110 in April 2002. S0 is used to route power to the pressurized station modules and conduct heat away from the modules to the S1 and P1 Trusses." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#S0_truss
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"Space Exploration Technologies Corp., trading as SpaceX, is an American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs to enable the colonization of Mars. SpaceX has developed several launch vehicles and the Dragon spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX
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"STS-111 was a space shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. STS-111 resupplied the station and replaced the Expedition 4 crew with the Expedition 5 crew. It was launched on 5 June 2002, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-111
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"The Mobile Remote Servicer Base System (MBS) is a base platform for the robotic arms. It was added to the station during STS-111 in June 2002. The platform rests atop the Mobile Transporter (installed on STS-110, designed by Northrop Grumman in Carpinteria, CA), which allows it to glide 108 metres down rails on the station's main truss. Canadarm2 can relocate by itself, but can't carry at the same time." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Servicing_System#Mobile_Base_System
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"Expedition 5 was the fifth long-duration stay on the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, consisting of three people, remained in space for 184 days, 178 of which were spent aboard the ISS. Commander Valery Korzun, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Peggy Whitson, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Sergei Treshchev, RSA. Expedition 5 was a continuation of an uninterrupted human presence in space, as of January 2019, which was begun by Expedition 1 in 2000-2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_5
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"Laomedeia /ˌleɪoʊməˈdiːə/, also known as Neptune XII, is a prograde irregular satellite of Neptune. It was discovered by Matthew J. Holman, et al. on August 13, 2002.[6] Before the announcement of its name on February 3, 2007 (IAUC 8802), it was known as S/2002 N 3." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laomedeia
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"Sao /ˈseɪ.oʊ/ is a prograde irregular satellite of Neptune. It was discovered by Matthew J. Holman et al. on August 14, 2002.Sao orbits Neptune at a distance of about 22.4 million km and is about 44 kilometers in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sao_(moon)
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"Neso /ˈniːsoʊ/, also known as Neptune XIII, is the outermost known natural satellite of Neptune. It is an irregular moon discovered by Matthew J. Holman, Brett J. Gladman, et al. on August 14, 2002, though it went unnoticed until 2003. Neso orbits Neptune at a distance of more than 48 Gm (million km), making it (as of 2015) the most distant known moon of any planet."
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"Halimede /hælɪˈmiːdiː/, or Neptune IX, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Neptune. It was discovered by Matthew J. Holman, John J. Kavelaars, Tommy Grav, Wesley C. Fraser and Dan Milisavljevic on August 14, 2002. Halimede, like many of the outer satellites of Neptune, is named after one of the Nereids, the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halimede_(moon)
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"It is a large-scale physics experiment and observatory to detect cosmic gravitational waves and to develop gravitational-wave observations as an astronomical tool. Two large observatories were built in the United States with the aim of detecting gravitational waves by laser interferometry. These can detect a change in the 4 km mirror spacing of less than a ten-thousandth the charge diameter of a proton." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIGO
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"Meteosat Second Generation was designed in response to user requirements to serve the needs of Nowcasting applications and numerical weather prediction. In addition, the GERB instrument provides important data for climate monitoring and research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteosat#Second_generation
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"STS-112 (ISS assembly flight 9A) was an 11-day Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Space Shuttle Atlantis was launched on 7 October 2002 at 19:45 UTC from the Kennedy Space Center's launch pad 39B to deliver the 28,000 pound Starboard 1 (S1) truss segment to the Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-112
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"The P1 and S1 trusses (also called the Port and Starboard Side Thermal Radiator Trusses) are attached to the S0 truss, and contain carts to transport the Canadarm2 and astronauts to worksites along the space station. They each flow 290 kg (637 lb) of anhydrous ammonia through three heat rejection radiators. The S1 truss was launched on STS-112 in October 2002 and the P1 truss was launched on STS-113 in November 2002." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#P1.2C_S1_trusses
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"The INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) is a space telescope for observing gamma rays of energies up to 8 MeV. It was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) into Earth orbit in 2002, and is designed to provide imaging and spectroscopy of cosmic sources." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTEGRAL
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"Arche /ˈɑːrkiː/, also known as Jupiter XLIII, is a moon of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2002, and received the temporary designation S/2002 J 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arche_(moon)
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"STS-113 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. During the 14-day mission in late 2002, Endeavour and its crew extended the ISS backbone with the P1 truss and exchanged the Expedition 5 and Expedition 6 crews aboard the station. With Commander Jim Wetherbee and Pilot Paul Lockhart at the controls." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-113
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"The crew Commander Kenneth Bowersox, NASA, The crew Flight Engineer 1 Nikolai Budarin, RSA, Flight Engineer Donald Pettit, NASA. The Columbia disaster, which occurred during the mission on 1 February, 2003 and resulted in the indefinite suspension of Shuttle flights, led to a change of plan such that the crew stayed on the station until May 2003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_6
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"The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was a fatal incident in the United States space program that occurred on February 1, 2003, when the Space Shuttle Columbia (OV-102) disintegrated as it reentered the atmosphere, killing all seven crew members. The disaster was the second fatal accident in the Space Shuttle program, after the 1986 breakup of Challenger soon after liftoff." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster
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"S/2003 J 4 is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003.S/2003 J 4 is about 2 km in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,571,000 km in 739.294 days, at an inclination of 147° to the ecliptic (149° to Jupiter's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.3003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_4
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"Eukelade /juːˈkɛlədiː/, also known as Jupiter XLVII, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and received the temporary designation S/2003 J 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukelade
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"Eupheme /juːˈfiːmiː/, also Jupiter LX, originally known as S/2003 J 3, is an outer natural satellite of Jupiter, 2 km in diameter.It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003. The moon was lost following its discovery in 2003. It was recovered in 2017 and given its permanent designation that year." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eupheme_(moon)
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"Narvi /ˈnɑːrvi/ or Saturn XXXI is a natural satellite of Saturn. It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the temporary designation S/2003 S 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narvi_(moon)
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"Helike /ˈhɛlɪkiː/, also known as Jupiter XLV, is a moon of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the temporary designation S/2003 J 6" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helike_(moon)
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"Mneme /ˈniːmiː/, also known as Jupiter XL, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003, and was provisionally designated S/2003 J 21." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mneme_(moon)
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"S/2003 J 23 is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard et al. in 2004 from pictures taken in 2003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_23
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"Kallichore /kəˈlɪkɒriː/, also known as Jupiter XLIV, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003. It received the temporary designation S/2003 J 11" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallichore_(moon)
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"S/2003 J 16 is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Brett J. Gladman in 2003.S/2003 J 16 is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,744 Mm in 610.362 days, at an inclination of 151° to the ecliptic (149° to Jupiter's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.3185." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_16
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"Eirene /aɪˈriːniː/, also Jupiter LVII and originally known as S/2003 J 5, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003. but was then lost. It was recovered in 2017 and given its permanent designation that year" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirene_(moon)
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"Philophrosyne (/fɪləˈfrɒsɪniː/ or /fɪləˈfrɒzɪniː/), also Jupiter LVIII and provisionally known as S/2003 J 15, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003, but then lost It was recovered in 2017 and given its permanent designation that year."
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"Hegemone /hɪˈdʒɛməniː/, also known as Jupiter XXXIX, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the temporary designation S/2003 J 8." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemone_(moon)
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"S/2003 J 12 is a natural satellite of Jupiter, and is one of the smallest known natural satellites in the Solar System. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_12
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"Aoede /eɪˈiːdiː/, also known as Jupiter XLI, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003. It received the temporary designation S/2003 J 7." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aoede_(moon)
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"Herse /ˈhɜːrsiː/, or Jupiter L, previously known by its provisional designation of S/2003 J 17, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered on 8 February 2003 by the astronomers Brett J. Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, and Lynne Allen and also by a team of astronomers at the University of Hawaii." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herse_(moon)
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"Cyllene /sɪˈliːniː/, also known as Jupiter XLVIII, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, receiving the temporary designation S/2003 J 13." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllene_(moon)
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"Thelxinoe /θɛlkˈsɪnoʊ.iː/, also known as Jupiter XLII, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2004 from pictures taken in 2003, and originally received the temporary designation S/2003 J 22" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thelxinoe_(moon)
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"Carpo /ˈkɑːrpoʊ/, also Jupiter XLVI, is a natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and was provisionally designated as S/2003 J 20 until it received its name in early 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpo_(moon)
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"S/2003 J 2 is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. The discovery, by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard and David C. Jewitt, was announced on March 4, 2003.[2][3] As of 2018, it is Jupiter's outermost known moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_2
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"S/2003 J 9 is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003.S/2003 J 9 is about 1 kilometre in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,858 Mm in 752.839 days, at an inclination of 165° to the ecliptic (165° to Jupiter's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.276" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_9
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"S/2003 J 10 is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard et al. in 2003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003_J_10
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"The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project
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"The crew Commander Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Ed Lu, NASA.The Space Shuttle fleet had been grounded due to the Columbia disaster, so the crew size was reduced to two, as opposed to the three that could be carried by the shuttle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_7
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"The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003 (during STS-107, a non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle program. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Automated Progress transports and the STS-114 mission were able to eliminate this waste build-up." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance
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"was a robotic spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to return a sample of material from a small near-Earth asteroid named 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa, formerly known as MUSES-C for Mu Space Engineering Spacecraft C, was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in mid-September 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayabusa
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"Mars Express is a space exploration mission being conducted by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Mars Express mission is exploring the planet Mars, and is the first planetary mission attempted by the agency. "Express" originally referred to the speed and efficiency with which the spacecraft was designed and built." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Express
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"Spirit, also known as MER-A (Mars Exploration Rover – A) or MER-2, is a robotic rover on Mars, active from 2004 to 2010.[2] It was one of two rovers of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission. It landed successfully within the impact crater Gusev on Mars at 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4, 2004" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(rover)
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"Opportunity, also known as MER-B (Mars Exploration Rover – B) or MER-1, and nicknamed "Oppy",[8] is a robotic rover that was active on Mars from 2004 until the middle of 2018.[2] Launched on July 7, 2003, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover program, it landed in Meridiani Planum on January 25, 2004, three weeks after its twin Spirit (MER-A) touched down on the other side of the planet." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_(rover)
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"It was an infrared space telescope launched in 2003 and retired on 30 January 2020.The planned mission period was to be 2.5 years with a pre-launch expectation that the mission could extend to five or slightly more years until the onboard liquid helium supply was exhausted." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope
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"Mab, or Uranus XXVI, is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered by Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope.[4] It was named after Queen Mab, a fairy queen from English folklore who is mentioned in William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mab_(moon)
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"Cupid is an inner satellite of Uranus. It was discovered by Mark R. Showalter and Jack J. Lissauer in 2003 using the Hubble Space Telescope. It was named after a character in William Shakespeare's play Timon of Athens." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupid_(moon)
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"Margaret is the only prograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003 and given the provisional designation S/2003 U 3.[Confirmed as Uranus XXIII, it was named after the servant of Hero in William Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_(moon)
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"Psamathe /ˈsæməθiː/, also known as Neptune X, is a retrograde irregular satellite of Neptune. It is named after Psamathe, one of the Nereids. Psamathe was discovered by Scott S. Sheppard and David C. Jewitt in 2003 using the 8.2 meter Subaru telescope" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psamathe_(moon)
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"SMART-1 was a Swedish-designed European Space Agency satellite that orbited around the Moon. It was launched on 27 September 2003 at 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. "SMART-1" stands for Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-1. On 3 September 2006 (05:42 UTC), SMART-1 was deliberately crashed into the Moon's surface, ending its mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMART-1
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"Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and launch of satellites into orbit, and is involved in many more advanced missions such as asteroid exploration and possible human exploration of the Moon.Its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize (formerly Reaching for the skies, exploring space). "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA
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"Shenzhou 5 (simplified Chinese: 神舟五号; traditional Chinese: 神舟五號; pinyin: shénzhōu wǔ hào) was the first human spaceflight mission of the Chinese space program, launched on 15 October 2003. The Shenzhou spacecraft was launched on a Long March 2F launch vehicle. There had been four previous flights of uncrewed Shenzhou missions since 1999." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhou_5
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"Expedition 8 Commander and NASA Station Science Officer Michael Foale, Flight Engineer Alexander Kaleri and ESA Astronaut Pedro Duque docked the Soyuz TMA-3 with the International Space Station at 07:15:58 UTC on 20 October 2003. At the time of docking, both spacecraft orbited the Earth above Russia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_8
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"Double Star is a joint satellite based space mission by the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and the European Space Agency (ESA). It is the first space mission launched by China to investigate Earth's magnetosphere. It consists of two satellites: an Equatorial satellite (TC-1) and Polar satellite (TC-2)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Star_(satellite)
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"On 2 January 2004, a minor air leak was detected on board the ISS. At one point, five pounds of air per day were leaking into space and the internal pressure of the ISS dropped from nominal 14.7 psi down to 14.0 psi, although this did not pose an immediate threat to Michael Foale and Aleksandr Kaleri, the two astronauts on board." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2004_%E2%80%93_Air_leak_and_Elektron_oxygen_generator_failure
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"It is Iran's governmental space agency. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009. Iran is one of the 24 founding members of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), which was set up on 13 December 1958."
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"Rosetta was a space probe built by the European Space Agency launched on 2 March 2004. Along with Philae, its lander module, Rosetta performed a detailed study of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (67P)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)
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"Padalka and Fincke arrived at the Station on 21 April 2004 aboard the Soyuz TMA-4 spacecraft with European Space Agency (ESA) Astronaut André Kuipers. After more than a week, Padalka and Fincke officially took command of the Station on 29 April when Expedition 8 Commander Michael Foale and Flight Engineer Alexander Kaleri left the Station.This mission was the site for the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Project" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_9
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"Methone /mɛˈθoʊniː/ is a very small natural satellite of Saturn orbiting between the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus. It was discovered in 2004, and in 2012 was imaged more closely by the Cassini orbiter probe." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methone_(moon)
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"Pallene was discovered by the Cassini Imaging Team in 2004, during the Cassini–Huygens mission. It was given the temporary designation S/2004 S 2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallene_(moon)#Discovery
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"MESSENGER was launched aboard a Delta II rocket in August 2004. Its path involved a complex series of flybys – the spacecraft flew by Earth once, Venus twice, and Mercury itself three times, allowing it to decelerate relative to Mercury using minimal fuel. During its first flyby of Mercury in January 2008, MESSENGER became the second mission, after Mariner 10 in 1975, to reach Mercury." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESSENGER
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"Expedition 10 (2004–2005) was the tenth expedition to the International Space Station, using the Soyuz TMA-5, which stayed during the expedition for emergency evacuation. The crew, Flight Engineer 1 Salizhan Sharipov, RSA and Flight Engineer 1 Salizhan Sharipov, RSA Notable accomplishments included replacing critical hardware in the Quest Joint Airlock; repairing U.S. spacesuits; and submitting a scientific research paper on ultrasound use in space. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_10
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"Polydeuces was discovered by the Cassini Imaging Team on October 24, 2004, in images taken on October 21, 2004, and given the temporary designation S/2004 S 5." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydeuces_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 7 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 8, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_7
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"Farbauti /fɑːrˈbaʊti/ or Saturn XL is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005, from observations taken between December 12, 2004, and March 9, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farbauti_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 12 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 9, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_12
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"Bergelmir or Saturn XXXVIII (provisional designation S/2004 S 15) is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005, from observations taken between December 12, 2004, and March 9, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergelmir_(moon)
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"Hyrrokkin /hɪˈrɒkən/ or Saturn XLIV is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006, from observations taken between December 12, 2004, and April 30, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyrrokkin_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 20 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_20
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"S/2004 S 24 is a natural satellite of Saturn, and the outermost known prograde satellite. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_24
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"S/2004 S 25 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007"
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"S/2004 S 26 is the outermost known natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_26
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"S/2004 S 28 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_28
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"S/2004 S 29 is a natural satellite of Saturn and a member of the Inuit group. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and January 17, 2007" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_29
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"S/2004 S 36 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and February 1, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_36
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"S/2004 S 37 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and February 2, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_37
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"S/2004 S 38 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_38
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"Aegir, also Saturn XXXVI (provisional designation S/2004 S 10), is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005, from observations taken between December 12, 2004, and March 11, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegir_(moon)
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"Bebhionn (pronounced /ˈbeɪvɪn/ or /ˈbɛvi.ɒn/), also known as Saturn XXXVII, is a small, irregular natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 4 May 2005 from observations taken between 12 December 2004 and 9 March 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebhionn_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 13 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 4 May 2005 from observations taken between 12 December 2004 and 9 March 2005."
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"Hati /ˈhɑːti/ or Saturn XLIII is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 4 May 2005, from observations taken between 12 December 2004 and 11 March 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hati_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 21 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and January 17, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_21
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"S/2004 S 22 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and February 1, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_22
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"S/2004 S 23 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_23
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"S/2004 S 30 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_30
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"S/2004 S 31 is a natural satellite of Saturn and a member of the Inuit group. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_31
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"S/2004 S 31 is a natural satellite of Saturn and a member of the Inuit group. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_31
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"S/2004 S 32 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and January 19, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_32
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"S/2004 S 34 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_34
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"S/2004 S 33 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 22, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_33
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"S/2004 S 35 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and February 25, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_35
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"Fornjot /ˈfɔːrnjoʊt/ or Saturn XLII is the second outermost natural satellite of Saturn (after S/2004 S 26). Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 4 May 2005 from observations taken between 12 December 2004, and 11 March 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornjot_(moon)
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"S/2004 S 27 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 7, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_27
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"S/2004 S 39 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna on October 8, 2019 from observations taken between December 12, 2004 and March 21, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2004_S_39
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"Bestla /ˈbɛstlə/ or Saturn XXXIX is a retrograde irregular moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 4 May 2005, from observations taken between 13 December 2004 and 5 March 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bestla_(moon)
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"Fenrir /ˈfɛnrɪər/, or Saturn XLI (provisional designation S/2004 S 16), is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005, from observations taken between December 13, 2004, and March 5, 2005." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenrir_(moon)
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"Haumea (minor-planet designation 136108 Haumea) is a likely dwarf planet located beyond Neptune's orbit.[20] It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and independently in 2005, by a team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain, though the latter claim has been contested." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haumea
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"Early on January 1, 2005, the Elektron generator, repaired in 2004, failed again, and the crew had to rely again on onboard oxygen." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2005_%E2%80%93_Elektron_oxygen_generator_fails_again
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"The Arduino project started in 2005 as a tool for students at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino#History
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"Eris (minor planet designation 136199 Eris) is the most massive[19] and second-largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System. Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar Observatory-based team led by Mike Brown, and its discovery was verified later that year." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)
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"Deep Impact was a NASA space probe launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on January 12, 2005. It was designed to study the interior composition of the comet Tempel 1 (9P/Tempel), by releasing an impactor into the comet. At 05:52 UTC on July 4, 2005, the Impactor successfully collided with the comet's nucleus. The impact excavated debris from the interior of the nucleus, forming an impact crater." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)
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"Hiʻiaka is the larger, outer moon of the possible dwarf planet Haumea. It is named after one of the daughters of Haumea, Hiʻiaka, the patron goddess of the Big Island of Hawaii." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%CA%BBiaka_(moon)
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"Makemake (minor-planet designation 136472 Makemake) is a likely dwarf planet and perhaps the second largest Kuiper belt object in the classical population,[a] with a diameter approximately two-thirds that of Pluto. Makemake has one known satellite, S/2015 (136472) 1." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makemake
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"Expedition 11 (2005) was the 11th expedition to the International Space Station, using the Soyuz TMA-6, which stayed during the expedition for emergency evacuation.European Space Agency Italian Astronaut Roberto Vittori launched with Expedition 11 on the Soyuz TMA-6 spacecraft and returned 24 April 2005 with Expedition 10 on Soyuz TMA-5." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_11
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"Daphnis is an inner satellite of Saturn. It is also known as Saturn XXXV; its provisional designation was S/2005 S 1. Daphnis is about 8 kilometres in diameter, and orbits the planet in the Keeler Gap within the A ring." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphnis_(moon)
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"Hydra is a natural satellite of Pluto, with a diameter of approximately 51 km (32 mi) across its longest dimension. It is the second largest moon of Pluto, being slightly larger than Nix. Hydra was discovered along with Nix by the Pluto Companion Search Team in June 2005. It was named after the Hydra, the nine-headed underworld serpent in Greek mythology" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(moon)
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"Nix is a natural satellite of Pluto, with a diameter of 49.8 km (30.9 mi) across its longest dimension. It was discovered along with Pluto's outermost moon Hydra in June 2005 by the Pluto Companion Search Team. It was named after Nyx, the Greek goddess of the night. Nix is the third moon of Pluto by distance, orbiting between the moons Styx and Kerberos." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nix_(moon)
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"The Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) was initially established on 18 May 2005 to control all joint military space assets. It was organized under U.S. Strategic Command's Joint Force Space Component Commander. The core cadre of personnel from the Joint Space Operations Center was provided by the Air Force's (now Space Force's) 614th Air Operations Center." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Space_Operations_Center#History
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"Namaka is the smaller, inner moon of the possible dwarf planet Haumea. It is named after Nāmaka, the goddess of the sea in Hawaiian mythology and one of the daughters of Haumea." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namaka_(moon)
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"STS-114 was the first "Return to Flight" Space Shuttle mission following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Discovery launched at 10:39 EDT (14:39 UTC), 26 July 2005. The launch, 907 days (approx. 29 months) after the loss of Columbia, was approved despite unresolved fuel sensor anomalies in the external tank that had prevented the shuttle from launching on 13 July, its originally scheduled date." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-114
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"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a spacecraft designed to study the geology and climate of Mars, provide reconnaissance of future landing sites, and relay data from surface missions back to Earth. It was launched on August 12, 2005 and reached Mars on March 10, 2006. In November 2006, after five months of aerobraking, it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter
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"Dysnomia (formally (136199) Eris I Dysnomia) is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris (the most massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System) and very probably the second-largest known moon of a dwarf planet, after Pluto I Charon. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysnomia_(moon)
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"Expedition 12 (2005) was the 12th expedition to the International Space Station, launched from Kazakhstan using the Russian Soyuz TMA-7 spacecraft. The crew Commander William S. McArthur, NASA and Flight Engineer 1 Valeri I. Tokarev, RSA.The crew landed back in Kazakhstan on 8 April 2006 with the addition of the first Brazilian astronaut, Marcos Pontes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_12
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"CryoSat-1, also known as just CryoSat, was a European Space Agency satellite which was lost in a launch failure in 2005. It was to have been operated as part of the CryoSat programme to study the Earth's polar ice caps." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CryoSat-1
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"SSETI Express was the first spacecraft to be designed and built by European students and was launched by the European Space Agency. SSETI Express (SSETI being the acronym for Student Space Exploration and Technology Initiative) is a small spacecraft, similar in size and shape to a washing machine." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSETI_Express_Satellite
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"Venus Express (VEX) was the first Venus exploration mission of the European Space Agency (ESA). Launched in November 2005, it arrived at Venus in April 2006 and began continuously sending back science data from its polar orbit around Venus. Equipped with seven scientific instruments, the main objective of the mission was the long term observation of the Venusian atmosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_Express
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"GIOVE-A is the first spacecraft whose design is based upon SSTL's new Geostationary Minisatellite Platform (GMP) satellite bus, intended for geostationary orbit. It is a demonstration mission testing technologies for the Galileo satellite navigation system." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIOVE#GIOVE-A
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"Kari or Saturn XLV is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 26 June 2006 from observations taken between January and April 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_(moon)
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"S/2006 S 1 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006 from observations taken between January 4 and April 30, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2006_S_1
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"S/2006 S 3 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006 from observations taken between January and April 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2006_S_3
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"Greip /ˈɡreɪp/ or Saturn LI is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 26 June 2006, from observations taken between 5 January and 1 May 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greip_(moon)
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"Loge or Saturn XLVI is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 26 June 2006, from observations taken between January and April 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loge_(moon)
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"Jarnsaxa /jɑːrnˈsæksə/, also known as Saturn L (provisional designation S/2006 S 6), is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006, from observations taken between January 5 and April 29, 2006." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarnsaxa_(moon)
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"Surtur /ˈsɜːrtər/ or Saturn XLVIII (provisional designation S/2006 S 7) is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006 from observations taken between January and April 2006. It was named after Surt, a leader of the fire giants of Norse mythology." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surtur_(moon)
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"Skoll /ˈskɒl/ or Saturn XLVII (provisional designation S/2006 S 8) is a retrograde irregular satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt and Jan Kleyna on 26 June 2006 from observations taken between 5 January and 30 April 2006."
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"New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe that was launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program.Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute, with a team led by S. Alan Stern, the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Horizons
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"The Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC), is a Dubai government organisation working on the UAE space program, which includes various space satellite projects, the Emirates Mars Mission, and the UAE astronaut programme. The centre actively works to promote space science and research in the region. The centre encompasses the Emirates Institution for Advanced Science and Technology (EIAST)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_bin_Rashid_Space_Centre
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"Expedition 13 was the 13th expedition to the International Space Station (ISS), and launched at 02:30 UTC on 30 March 2006. The crew, Commander Russia Pavel Vinogradov, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Jeffrey Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Germany Thomas Reiter, ESA. The installation of two Materials on Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE) containers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_13
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"Two Wide-Angle Imaging Neutral-Atom Spectrometers (TWINS) are a pair of NASA instruments aboard two United States National Reconnaissance Office satellites in Molniya orbits. TWINS was designed to provide stereo images of the Earth's ring current. The first instrument, TWINS-1, was launched aboard USA-184 on 28 June 2006. TWINS-2 followed aboard USA-200 on March 13, 2008." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TWINS
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"STS-121 was a 2006 NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Discovery The main purposes of the mission were to test new safety and repair techniques introduced following the Columbia disaster of February 2003 as well as to deliver supplies, equipment and European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut Thomas Reiter from Germany to the ISS" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-121
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"The Minus Eighty-Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI) is a European-built experiment storage freezer for the International Space Station. It comprises four independent dewars which can be set to operate at different temperatures.The first MELFI[clarification needed] unit, FU-1, was flown to the station in 2006 on Space Shuttle mission STS-121, installed in the Destiny Laboratory Module, and commissioned by Thomas Reiter."
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"The P3/P4 truss assembly was installed by the Space Shuttle Atlantis STS-115 mission, launched September 9, 2006, and attached to the P1 segment. The P3 and P4 segments together contain a pair of solar arrays, a radiator and a rotary joint that will aim the solar arrays, and connects P3 to P4." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#P3/P4,_S3/S4_truss_assemblies
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"STS-115 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the first assembly mission to the ISS after the Columbia disaster, following the two successful Return to Flight missions. The mission is also referred to as ISS-12A by the ISS program. The mission delivered the second port-side truss segment (ITS P3/P4), a pair of solar arrays (2A and 4A), and batteries." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-115
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"Exp.14 was the 14th expedition to the ISS. Commander Michael López-Alegría, and flight engineer Mikhail Tyurin launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome on 18 September 2006, 04:09 UTC, aboard Soyuz TMA-9. They joined Thomas Reiter, who had arrived at the ISS on 6 July 2006 aboard Space Shuttle Discovery during mission STS-121. In December 2006, Discovery mission STS-116 brought Sunita Williams to replace Reiter as the third member of Exp.14." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_14
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"On 18 September 2006, the Expedition 13 crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of the three Elektron oxygen generators triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. The crew initially reported a smell in the cabin. The alarm was later found to be caused by a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2006_%E2%80%93_Venting_of_gas
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"STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory) is a solar observation mission. Two nearly identical spacecraft were launched in 2006 into orbits around the Sun that cause them to respectively pull farther ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEREO
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"MetOp is a series of three polar-orbiting meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) and operated by the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). The satellites form the space segment component of the overall EUMETSAT Polar System (EPS), which in turn is the European half of the EUMETSAT/NOAA Initial Joint Polar System (IJPS). " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetOp
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"STS-116 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Discovery. The mission is also referred to as ISS-12A.1 by the ISS program. The main goals of the mission were delivery and attachment of the International Space Station's P5 truss segment, a major rewiring of the station's power system, and exchange of ISS Expedition 14 personnel." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-116
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"The P5 and S5 trusses are connectors which support the P6 and S6 trusses, respectively. The P3/P4 and S3/S4 truss assemblies' length was limited by the cargo bay capacity of the Space Shuttle, so these small connectors are needed to extend the truss. The P5 truss was installed on December 12, 2006 during the first EVA of mission STS-116." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#P3/P4,_S3/S4_truss_assemblies
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"CoRoT (French: Convection, Rotation et Transits planétaires; English: Convection, Rotation and planetary Transits) was a space telescope mission which operated from 2006 to 2013. The mission's two objectives were to search for extrasolar planets with short orbital periods, particularly those of large terrestrial size, and to perform asteroseismology by measuring solar-like oscillations in stars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoRoT
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"DTU Space, is a Danish sector research institute and a part of the Technical University of Denmark. It has a staff of 169, including researchers, engineers, and technicians. The Institute conducts research in astrophysics, Solar System physics, geodesy, and space technology. To conduct the research, the Institute collaborates with the Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy, Geophysics and Physics." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTU_Space
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"A fast radio burst is a transient radio pulse of length ranging from a fraction of a millisecond to a few milliseconds, caused by some high-energy astrophysical process not yet understood.The first FRB was discovered by Duncan Lorimer and his student David Narkevic in 2007 when they were looking through archival pulsar survey data." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_radio_burst
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"During STS-120 a problem was detected in the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ).This joint, together with a similar device on the port side of the station's truss structure,rotates the large solar arrays to keep them facing the Sun.Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted,resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance
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"S/2007 S 2 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 1, 2007, from observations taken between January 18 and April 19, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2007_S_2
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"S/2007 S 3 is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 1, 2007 from observations taken between January 18 and April 19, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2007_S_3
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"Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) mission began in February 2007 as a constellation of five NASA satellites (THEMIS A through THEMIS E) to study energy releases from Earth's magnetosphere known as substorms, magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth's poles. The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan Themis." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THEMIS
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"Also known as KazCosmos, or KazKosmos, is Kazakhstan's national space agency, and was officially established on March 27, 2007."
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"Expedition 15 was the 15th expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Oleg Kotov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Sunita Williams, NASA, Clayton Anderson, NASA. During Expedition 15, the ISS Integrated Truss Structure was expanded twice: STS-117 brought the S3/S4 truss, and STS-118 brought the S5 truss." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_15
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"Tarqeq, also known as Saturn LII (provisional designation S/2007 S 1) is a natural satellite of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on 13 April 2007 from observations taken between 5 January 2006 and 22 March 2007. It is named after Tarqeq, the Inuit moon god,and is a member of the Inuit group of irregular satellites." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarqeqhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarqeq
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"The Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) is a satellite originally launched to conduct a 26-month study of noctilucent clouds (NLCs). Its mission was extended, and as of 2019 is still operational.[3] It is the ninetieth Explorer program mission and is part of the NASA-funded Small Explorer program (SMEX)."
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"Anthe /ˈænθiː/ is a very small natural satellite of Saturn lying between the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus. It is also known as Saturn XLIX; its provisional designation was S/2007 S 4. It is named after one of the Alkyonides; the name means flowery. It is the sixtieth confirmed moon of Saturn." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthe_(moon)
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"STS-117 (ISS assembly flight 13A) was a Space Shuttle mission flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis, launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on 8 June 2007. The S3/S4 truss assembly—a mirror-image of P3/P4—was installed on June 11, 2007 also by Space Shuttle Atlantis during flight STS-117, mission 13A and mounted to the S1 truss segment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#P3/P4,_S3/S4_truss_assemblies
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"STS-117 (ISS assembly flight 13A) was a Space Shuttle mission flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis, launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on 8 June 2007. Atlantis delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) the second starboard truss segment (the S3/S4 Truss) and its associated energy systems, including a set of solar arrays. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-117
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"On 14 June 2007, during Expedition 15 and flight day 7 of STS-117's visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, causing the temperature on the station to rise. A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm that woke the crew at 11:43 UTC." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance
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"The iPhone (colloquially known, retronymically, as the iPhone 2G, the first iPhone, and iPhone 1 after 2008 to differentiate it from later models) is the first smartphone designed and marketed by Apple Inc. After years of rumors and speculation, it was officially announced on January 9, 2007, and was later released in the United States on June 29, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_(1st_generation)
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"Phoenix was a robotic spacecraft on a space exploration mission on Mars under the Mars Scout Program. The Phoenix lander landed on Mars on May 25, 2008. Mission scientists used instruments aboard the lander to assess the local habitability and to research the history of water there. The total mission cost was about US$386 million, which includes cost of the launch." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)
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"This was the first flight of Endeavour since STS-113 in November 2002, which was also the last successful shuttle flight before STS-107 which culminated in the loss of Columbia when it disintegrated during reentry." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-118
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"The electrical system of the International Space Station is a critical resource for the International Space Station (ISS) because it allows the crew to live comfortably, to safely operate the station, and to perform scientific experiments. The ISS electrical system uses solar cells to directly convert sunlight to electricity. Large numbers of cells are assembled in arrays to produce high power levels." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_system_of_the_International_Space_Station
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"The Young Engineers' Satellite 2 (YES2) is a 36 kg student-built tether satellite that is part of ESA's Foton-M3 microgravity mission. The launch of the Russian Foton-M3 occurred on September 14, 2007 at 13:00 (CEST) by a Soyuz-U launcher. The project was carried out by Delta-Utec SRC and supervised by the ESA Education Office and was nearly entirely designed and build by students and young engineers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Engineers%27_Satellite_2
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"Dawn is a retired space probe launched by NASA in September 2007 with the mission of studying two of the three known protoplanets of the asteroid belt, Vesta and Ceres.[1] It was retired on 1 November 2018 and it is currently in an uncontrolled orbit around its second target, the dwarf planet Ceres." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_(spacecraft)
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"Expedition 16 was the 16th expedition to the International Space Station (ISS) launched on 10 October 2007. The crew, Commander United States Peggy Whitson, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Clayton Anderson, Daniel Tani, NASA, Léopold Eyharts, ESA, Garrett Reisman, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_16
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"The Allen Telescope Array (ATA), formerly known as the One Hectare Telescope (1hT), is a radio telescope array dedicated to astronomical observations and a simultaneous search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). The array is situated at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory in Shasta County, 290 miles (470 km) northeast of San Francisco, California." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Telescope_Array
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"Harmony, also known as Node 2, is the "utility hub" of the International Space Station. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.Harmony was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on October 23, 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony_(ISS_module)
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"STS-120 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) that launched on 23 October 2007 from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission is also referred to as ISS-10A by the ISS program. STS-120 delivered the Harmony module and reconfigured a portion of the station in preparation for future assembly missions. STS-120 was flown by Space Shuttle Discovery, and was the twenty-third Space Shuttle mission to the ISS." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-120
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"Chang'e 1, was an unmanned Chinese lunar-orbiting spacecraft, part of the first phase of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. The spacecraft was named after the Chinese Moon goddess, Chang'e.Chang'e 1 was launched on 24 October 2007 at 10:05:04 UTC from Xichang Satellite Launch Center. It left lunar transfer orbit on 31 October and entered lunar orbit on 5 November.The first picture of the Moon was relayed on 26 November 2007." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e_1
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"On 30 October 2007, during Expedition 16 and flight day 7 of STS-120's visit to ISS, following the repositioning of the P6 truss segment, ISS and Space Shuttle Discovery crew members began the deployment of the two solar arrays on the truss. The first array deployed without incident, and the second array deployed about 80% before astronauts noticed a 76-centimetre (2.5 ft) tear." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2007_%E2%80%93_Torn_solar_panel
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"In April 2008, NASA partnered with Geoff Brown and Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp to develop 5G communications technology. In 2008, the South Korean IT R&D program of "5G mobile communication systems based on beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation" was formed." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G#History
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"The Automated Transfer Vehicle, originally Ariane Transfer Vehicle or ATV, was an expendable cargo spacecraft developed by the European Space Agency (ESA), used for space cargo transport in 2008–2014. The ATV design was launched to orbit five times, exclusively by the Ariane 5 heavy-lift launch vehicle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle
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"STS-122 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS), flown by the Space Shuttle Atlantis. The mission was also referred to as ISS-1E by the ISS program. The primary objective of STS-122 was to deliver the European Columbus science laboratory, built by the European Space Agency (ESA), to the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-122
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"Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the International Space Station (ISS) and is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA). Like the Harmony and Tranquility modules, the Columbus laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)
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"The European Transportation Carrier (ETC) transports various payload items, such as commissioning items, science instruments, consumables, orbital support equipment, orbital replacement units, and resupply items, and science items, such as containers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Transportation_Carrier
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"The first Columbus-EPF payload facilities were the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) and Sun Monitoring on the External Payload Facility of Columbus (Solar), which were installed during the STS-122/1E mission during an extravehicular activity (EVA) by crew members." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_%E2%80%93_External_Payload_Facility
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"SOLAR was an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory, which is part of the International Space Station. SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122. It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF). SOLAR has three main space science instruments: SOVIM, SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES. Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun's spectral irradiance." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOLAR_(ISS)
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"Biolab (Biological Experiment Laboratory) is a single-rack multi-user science payload designed for use in the Columbus laboratory of the International Space Station. Biolab support biological research on small plants, small invertebrates, microorganisms, animal cells, and tissue cultures." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolab
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"STS-123 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. STS-123 was the 1J/A ISS assembly mission.It was the twenty-fifth shuttle mission to visit the ISS, and delivered the first module of the Japanese laboratory, Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō), and the Canadian Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator, (SPDM) Dextre robotics system to the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-123
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"It is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the Harmony module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibo_(ISS_module)
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"The experiment logistics module (ELM) includes two sections:
The pressurized section (ELM-PS) – also called the JLP (Japanese logistics pressurized) – is a pressurized addition to the PM. The module is a storage facility that provides storage space for experiment payloads, samples and spare items.[4]
The unpressurized (external) section (ELM-ES) serves the EF as a storage and transportation module." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibo_(ISS_module)#Experiment_logistics_module -
"Expedition 17 was the 17th expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). The first two crew members, Sergey Volkov, and Oleg Kononenko were launched on 8 April 2008, aboard the Soyuz TMA-12. Once aboard the station, they joined Garrett Reisman, who transferred from Expedition 16 to join the Expedition 17 crew. Reisman was replaced by Gregory Chamitoff, who launched aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery mission STS-124 on 31 May 2008." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_17
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"It was originally built by satellite consortium European Satellite Navigation Industries, but following re-organization of the project in 2007, the satellite prime contractor responsibility was passed to Astrium." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIOVE#GIOVE-B
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"STS-124 was a Space Shuttle mission, flown by Space Shuttle Discovery to the International Space Station. Discovery launched on 31 May 2008 at 17:02 EDT, moved from an earlier scheduled launch date of 25 May 2008,[4] and landed safely at the Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility, at 11:15 EDT on 14 June 2008. Its objective was to deliver the largest module of the space station - the Japanese Experiment Module pressurized section." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-124
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"On 3 April 2008, ESA director general Jean-Jacques Dordain announced that recruiting for a new class of European astronauts will start in the near future.[1] The selection program for 4 new astronauts was launched on 19 May 2008 with applications due by 16 June 2008[citation needed] so that final selection would be due spring 2009." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Astronaut_Corps
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"OSTM/Jason-2, or the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2 satellite, was an international Earth observation satellite mission that continued the sea surface height measurements begun in 1992 by the joint NASA/CNES TOPEX/Poseidon mission and followed by the NASA/CNES Jason-1 mission launched in 2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2
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"NanoSail-D was a small satellite which was to have been used by NASA's Ames Research Center to study the deployment of a solar sail in space. It was a three-unit CubeSat measuring 30 by 10 by 10 centimetres (12 × 3.9 × 3.9 inches), with a mass of 4 kilograms (8.8 lb)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NanoSail-D
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"Aegaeon /iːˈdʒiːɒn/, or Saturn LIII (provisional designation S/2008 S 1), is a natural satellite of Saturn. It is thought to be similarly smooth as Methone.It orbits between Janus and Mimas within Saturn's G Ring." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegaeon_(moon)
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"China became the third country to independently carry out an EVA on September 27, 2008 during the Shenzhou 7 mission. Chinese astronaut Zhai Zhigang completed a spacewalk wearing the Chinese-developed Feitian space suit, with astronaut Liu Boming wearing the Russian-derived Orlan space suit to help him. Zhai completely exited the craft, while Liu stood by at the airlock, straddling the portal." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravehicular_activity#Chinese_EVA
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"Exp.18 was the 18th permanent crew of the ISS. The first two crew members, Michael Fincke, and Yuri Lonchakov were launched on 12 October 2008, aboard Soyuz TMA-13. With them was astronaut Sandra Magnus, who joined the Exp.18 crew after launching on STS-126. She was replaced by JAXA astronaut Koichi Wakata, who arrived at the ISS on STS-119 on 17 March 2009. Gregory Chamitoff, who joined Exp.18 after Exp.17 left the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_18
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"The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) is one of two instruments that NASA contributed to India's first mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-1, launched October 22, 2008. It is an imaging spectrometer, and the team is led by Principal investigator Carle Pieters of Brown University, and managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Mineralogy_Mapper
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"STS-126 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. The purpose of the mission, referred to as ULF2 by the ISS program, was to deliver equipment and supplies to the station, to service the Solar Alpha Rotary Joints (SARJ), and repair the problem in the starboard SARJ that had limited its use since STS-120." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-126
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"The Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR) is an experiment facility installed in the International Space Station (ISS). It includes an optics bench, combustion chamber, fuel and oxidizer control, and five different cameras for performing combustion experiments in microgravity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_Integrated_Rack
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"Progress M-01M (Russian: Прогресс М-01М), identified by NASA as Progress 31P, was a Progress spacecraft used to resupply the International Space Station. It was the first flight of the Progress-M 11F615A60, which featured a TsVM-101 digital flight computer and MBITS digital telemetry system,[1] in place of the earlier analogue systems. It was the first Progress-M 11F615A60 spacecraft, and had the serial number 401." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_M-01M
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"It is a life support system that provides or controls atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew—a process that recycles fluid from the sink, shower, toilet, and condensation from the air." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS_ECLSS
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"On 14 January 2009, an incorrect command sequence caused the Zvezda service module orbital altitude maintenance rocket propulsion control system to misfire during an altitude re-boost manoeuvre. This resulted in resonant vibrations into the station structure which persisted for over two minutes. While no damage to the station was immediately reported, some components may have been stressed beyond their design limits." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance
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"The Kepler space telescope is a retired space telescope launched by NASA to discover Earth-size planets orbiting other stars. Named after astronomer Johannes Kepler, the spacecraft was launched on March 7, 2009, into an Earth-trailing heliocentric orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope
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"The P6 truss was the second truss segment to be added, because it contains a large Solar Array Wing (SAW) that generated essential electricity for the station, prior to activation of the SAW on the P4 truss. It was originally mounted to the Z1 truss and had its SAW extended during STS-97, but the SAW was folded, one half at a time, to make room for the SAWs on the P4 and S4 trusses, during STS-116 and STS-117 respectively" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Truss_Structure#P6,_S6_trusses
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"STS-119 (ISS assembly flight 15A) was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by OV-103 during March 2009. It delivered and assembled the fourth starboard Integrated Truss Segment (S6), and the fourth set of solar arrays and batteries to the station. The launch took place on 15 March 2009, at 19:43 EDT. Discovery successfully landed on 28 March 2009, at 15:13 pm EDT." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-119
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"The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) was the first of ESA's Living Planet Programme satellites intended to map in unprecedented detail the Earth's gravity field. The spacecraft's primary instrumentation was a highly sensitive gravity gradiometer consisting of three pairs of accelerometers which measured gravitational gradients along three orthogonal axes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Field_and_Steady-State_Ocean_Circulation_Explorer
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"Expedition 19 was the 19th long-duration flight to the International Space Station. This expedition launched on 26 March 2009, at 11:49 UTC aboard the Soyuz TMA-14 spacecraft. The crew, Commander Russia Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Michael Barratt, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Japan Koichi Wakata, JAXA.Padalka raised an issue concerning shared use of facilities such as exercise equipment and toilet facilities." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_19
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"STS-125, or HST-SM4 (Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 4), was the fifth and final Space Shuttle mission to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the last solo flight of the Space Shuttle Atlantis. The launch of the Space Shuttle Atlantis occurred on 11 May 2009 at 2:01 pm EDT. Landing occurred on 24 May at 11:39 am EDT, with the mission lasting a total of just under 13 days." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-125https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-125
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"The Herschel Space Observatory was a space observatory built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was active from 2009 to 2013, and was the largest infrared telescope ever launched,[5] carrying a 3.5-metre (11.5 ft) mirror and instruments sensitive to the far infrared and submillimetre wavebands (55–672 µm)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory
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"Planck was a space observatory operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) from 2009 to 2013, which mapped the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at microwave and infra-red frequencies, with high sensitivity and small angular resolution. The mission substantially improved upon observations made by the NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)
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"The S1-3 radiator has a damaged cooling panel that may require on-orbit repair or replacement, as the damage may have the potential to create a leak in the External Thermal Control System (ETCS) of the station, possibly leading to unacceptable loss of the ammonia coolant." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2009_%E2%80%93_Potential_ammonia_leak_from_S1_radiator_due_to_damaged_panel
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"Exp. 20 marked the first time a six-member crew inhabited the station. The crew, Commander Rus. Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 US Michael Barratt, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Bel. Frank De Winne, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Rus. Roman Romanenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Canada Robert Thirsk, CSA, Flight Engineer 5 Japan Koichi Wakata, JAXA, US Timothy Kopra, NASA, US Nicole Stott, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_20
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"The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is a NASA robotic spacecraft currently orbiting the Moon in an eccentric polar mapping orbit. Data collected by LRO have been described as essential for planning NASA's future human and robotic missions to the Moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Reconnaissance_Orbiter
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"The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) was a robotic spacecraft operated by NASA. The mission was conceived as a low-cost means of determining the nature of hydrogen detected at the polar regions of the Moon." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCROSS
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"STS-127 (ISS assembly flight 2J/A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was the twenty-third flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour. The primary purpose of the STS-127 mission was to deliver and install the final two components of the Japanese Experiment Module: the Exposed Facility JEM EF, and the Exposed Section of the Experiment Logistics Module (ELM-ES). EVA3 was cut short due to high levels of CO2 in Cassidy's suit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-127
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"The exposed facility (EF), also known as "Terrace", is located outside the port cone of the PM (which is equipped with an airlock). The EF has 12 EFU (exposed facility unit) ports that attach to PIU (payload interface unit) connectors on EF-EEUs (EF-equipment exchange units). All experiment payloads are fully exposed to the space environment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibo_(ISS_module)#Exposed_facility
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"S/2009 S 1 is a "propeller moonlet" of Saturn orbiting at a distance of 117,000 km (73,000 mi), in the outer part of the B Ring, and with a diameter of 300 m (1,000 ft).The moonlet was discovered by the Cassini Imaging Team during the Cronian equinox event on 26 July 2009, when it cast a shadow 36 km (22 mi) long onto the B Ring. S/2009 S 1 protrudes 150 m (500 ft) north of the ring. The image was taken approximately 296,000 km (184,000 mi) from Saturn." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2009_S_1
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"STS-128 (ISS assembly flight 17A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) that launched on 28 August 2009. Space Shuttle Discovery carried the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Leonardo as its primary payload. Leonardo contained a collection of experiments for studying the physics and chemistry of microgravity." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-128
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"The Materials Science Laboratory (MSL) of the European Space Agency is a payload on board the International Space Station for materials science experiments in low gravity.It is installed in NASA's first Materials Science Research Rack which is placed in the Destiny laboratory on board the ISS. Its purpose is to process material samples in different ways." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_Science_Laboratory
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"The H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), also called Kounotori (こうのとり, Kōnotori, "Oriental stork" or "white stork"), is an expendable, automated cargo spacecraft used to resupply the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) and the International Space Station (ISS). The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has been working on the design since the early 1990s. The first mission, HTV-1, was originally intended to be launched in 2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-II_Transfer_Vehicle
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"Expedition 21 crew, the expedition began on 30 October 2009, with Frank de Winne becoming the first ESA astronaut to command a space mission.Flight Engineer 1 Russia Roman Romanenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Canada Robert Thirsk, CSA, Flight Engineer 3 US Jeffrey N. Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Maksim Surayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 US Nicole P. Stott, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_21
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"PROBA-2 is the second satellite in the European Space Agency's series of PROBA low-cost satellites that are being used to validate new spacecraft technologies while also carrying scientific instruments.PROBA-2 is a small satellite (130 kg) developed under an ESA General Support Technology Program (GSTP) contract by a Belgian consortium led by Verhaert (now QinetiQ Space) of Kruibeke, Belgium." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-2
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"Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) is a satellite which forms part of ESA's Living Planet Programme. It is intended to provide new insights into Earth's water cycle and climate. In addition, it is intended to provide improved weather forecasting and monitoring of snow and ice accumulation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_Moisture_and_Ocean_Salinity
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"STS-129 (ISS assembly flight ULF3) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Atlantis was launched on November 16, 2009 at 14:28 EST, and landed at 09:44 EST on November 27, 2009 on runway 33 at the Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility. It was also the last shuttle launch of the 2000s." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-129
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An ExPRESS logistics carrier (ELC) is an unpressurized attached payload platform for the International Space Station (ISS) that provides mechanical mounting surfaces, electrical power, and command and data handling services for Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) as well as science experiments on the ISS. ("ExPRESS" stands for Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station.)
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"Expedition 22 was the 22nd long duration crew flight to the International Space Station (ISS). Commander US Jeffrey N. Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Maksim Surayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Oleg Kotov, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Japan Soichi Noguchi, JAXA, Flight Engineer 4 US Timothy Creamer." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_22
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"A CubeSat (U-class spacecraft) is a type of miniaturized satellite for space research that is made up of multiples of 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm cubic units.NASA's CubeSat Launch Initiative,[94] created in 2010, provides CubeSat launch opportunities to educational institutions, non-profit organizations and NASA Centers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat#CubeSat_Launch_Initiative
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"The first unassisted off-Earth Twitter message was posted from the International Space Station by NASA astronaut T. J. Creamer on January 22, 2010. By late November 2010, an average of a dozen updates per day were posted on the astronauts' communal account, @NASA_Astronauts." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter#Creation_and_initial_reaction
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"The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the International Space Station (ISS). Its name derives from the Italian word cupola, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the Tranquility (Node 3) module." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupola_(ISS_module)
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"STS-130 (ISS assembly flight 20A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Space Shuttle Endeavour's primary payloads were the Tranquility module and the Cupola, a robotic control station with six windows around its sides and another in the center, providing a 360-degree view around the station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-130
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"The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) is a NASA mission which has been observing the Sun since 2010. Launched on February 11, 2010, the observatory is part of the Living With a Star (LWS) program.The goal of the LWS program is to develop the scientific understanding necessary to effectively address those aspects of the connected Sun–Earth system directly affecting life and society."
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"Exp. 23 (Russian: МКС-23) was the 23rd long-duration mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Expedition 23 began with the Soyuz TMA-16 undocking on 18 March 2010. The rew, Commander Russia Oleg Kotov, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Japan Soichi Noguchi, JAXA, Flight Engineer 2 US Timothy Creamer, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA,Flight Engineer 4 Russia Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 US Tracy Caldwell Dyson, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_23
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" is an executive agency of the Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for the United Kingdom's civil space programme. It was established on 1 April 2010 to replace the British National Space Centre (BNSC) and took over responsibility for government policy and key budgets for space exploration; it represents the United Kingdom in all negotiations on space matters."
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"STS-131 (ISS assembly flight 19A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Space Shuttle Discovery launched on 5 April 2010 at 6:21 am from LC-39A, and landed at 9:08 am on 20 April 2010 on runway 33 at the Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility. The mission marked the longest flight for Space Shuttle Discovery." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-131
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"The Window Observational Research Facility (WORF) is an experiment rack facility manufactured by the Brazilian Space Agency, which remotely operated payloads and crew members can perform Earth and space science research, including hand held photography, at the U.S. Laboratory Science Window on the ISS." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_Observational_Research_Facility
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"The Muscle Atrophy Research and Exercise System (MARES), part of the Human Research Facility (HRF),was launched on 5 April 2010 (STS-131) in a stowed position inside the HRF MARES Rack,integrated into a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) and transported to the ISS. When deployed, MARES was attached to the seat tracks of an International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) located in the Columbus Laboratory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_Atrophy_Research_and_Exercise_System
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"CryoSat-2 is a European Space Agency environmental research satellite which was launched in April 2010. It provides scientists with data about the polar ice caps and tracks changes in the thickness of the ice with a resolution of about 1.3 centimetres (1⁄2 in)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CryoSat-2
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"STS-132 (ISS assembly flight ULF4) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Atlantis docked with the International Space Station on 16 May 2010. STS-132 was launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 14 May 2010. The primary payload was the Russian Rassvet Mini-Research Module, along with an Integrated Cargo Carrier-Vertical Light Deployable (ICC-VLD). Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on 26 May 2010." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-132
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"Expedition 24 was the 24th long-duration mission to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 US Tracy Caldwell Dyson, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 US Shannon Walker, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 US Douglas H. Wheelock, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_24
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"Early on 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2010_%E2%80%93_Failure_in_cooling_loop_A
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"Exp.25 was the 25th long-duration mission to the International Space Station (ISS). Expedition 25 began with the Soyuz TMA-18 undocking on 25 September 2010. The crew, Commander US Douglas H. Wheelock, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 US Shannon Walker, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 US Scott J. Kelly, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Aleksandr Kaleri, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Russia Oleg Skripochka, RSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_25
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"Sea Launch was established in 1995 as a consortium of four companies from Norway, Russia, Ukraine and the United States, managed by Boeing with participation from the other shareholders.The first rocket was launched in March 1999. Sea Launch emerged from bankruptcy effective October 27, 2010." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Launch#History
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"Expedition 26 officially began the following month on 26 November,when half of the crew of the previous mission, Expedition 25, returned to Earth on board Soyuz TMA-19. The crew, Commander US Scott J. Kelly, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Aleksandr Kaleri, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Oleg Skripochka, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Dmitri Kondratyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 US Catherine Coleman, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Italy Paolo Nespoli, ESA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_26
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"HYLAS (or HYLAS-1) is a British satellite in geostationary orbit. HYLAS, which is an acronym for Highly Adaptable Satellite, is a communications satellite and was launched by the European Ariane 5 launch vehicle from the Guyana Space Centre at Kourou in French Guiana" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HYLAS-1
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"The SpaceX Dragon, also known as Dragon 1, is a reusable cargo spacecraft developed by SpaceX, an American private space transportation company. Dragon was launched into orbit by the company's Falcon 9 launch vehicle to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). During its maiden flight in December 2010, Dragon became the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to be recovered successfully from orbit." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon
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"The Commercial Crew Program is a human spaceflight program operated by NASA in association with American aerospace manufacturers Boeing and SpaceX. The program conducts rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program, transporting crews to and from the ISS aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule and SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule in the first crewed orbital spaceflights operated by private companies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Crew_Program
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"The Johannes Kepler ATV, or Automated Transfer Vehicle 002 (ATV-002), was an uncrewed cargo spacecraft built to resupply the International Space Station. It was launched on 16 February 2011 by the European Space Agency (ESA). Johannes Kepler carried propellant, air and dry cargo weighing over 7,000 kilograms (15,000 lb), and had a total mass of over 20,000 kilograms (44,000 lb), making it, at the time, the heaviest payload launched by the ESA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler_ATV
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"STS-133 (ISS assembly flight ULF5) was the 133rd mission in NASA's Space Shuttle program; during the mission, Space Shuttle Discovery docked with the International Space Station. It was Discovery's 39th and final mission. The mission launched on 24 February 2011, and landed on 9 March 2011." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-133
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"An ExPRESS logistics carrier (ELC) is an unpressurized attached payload platform for the International Space Station (ISS) that provides mechanical mounting surfaces, electrical power, and command and data handling services for Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) as well as science experiments on the ISS." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExPRESS_Logistics_Carrier
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Expedition 27 saw numerous notable events, the undocking of the Progress M-09M and Kounotori 2 spacecraft, the arrival of the Soyuz TMA-21 and Progress M-10M spacecraft. The crew, Commander Russia Dmitri Kondratyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 US Catherine Coleman, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Italy Paolo Nespoli, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Andrei Borisenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Aleksandr Samokutyayev,RSA, Flight Engineer 5 US Ron Garan, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_27
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"STS-134 (ISS assembly flight ULF6) was the penultimate mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the 25th and last spaceflight of Space Shuttle Endeavour. This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-134
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"Exp.28 was the 28th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station, and began on 23 May 2011. The crew, Commander Andrei Borisenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Aleksandr Samokutyayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Ron Garan, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Sergey Volkov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Mike Fossum, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Satoshi Furukawa, JAXA.The expedition saw a number of significant events, including the final Space Shuttle mission, STS-135"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_28
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"C/2011 L4 (PANSTARRS) is a non-periodic comet discovered in June 2011 that became visible to the naked eye when it was near perihelion in March 2013. It was discovered using the Pan-STARRS telescope located near the summit of Haleakalā, on the island of Maui in Hawaii. Comet C/2011 L4 probably took millions of years to come from the Oort cloud." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2011_L4
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"On 28 June 2011, an unidentified object was seen flying near the space station. The object flew by at a relative velocity of 29,000 mph (47,000 km/h) and a distance of only 1,100 feet (340 m) from the station. The six-person crew immediately boarded the Soyuz capsules and closed the hatches on the station as well as on the Soyuz." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2011_%E2%80%93_Near_collision_with_space_debris
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"Kerberos is a small natural satellite of Pluto, about 19 km (12 mi) in its longest dimension. It was the fourth moon of Pluto to be discovered and its existence was announced on 20 July 2011. It was imaged, along with Pluto and its four other moons, by the New Horizons spacecraft in July 2015." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerberos_(moon)
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"STS-135 (ISS assembly flight ULF7) was the 135th and final mission of the American Space Shuttle program. It used the orbiter Atlantis and hardware originally processed for the STS-335 contingency mission, which was not flown. STS-135 launched on 8 July 2011, and landed on 21 July 2011, following a one-day mission extension." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-135
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"Juno is a NASA space probe orbiting the planet Jupiter. It was built by Lockheed Martin and is operated by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on August 5, 2011 (UTC), as part of the New Frontiers program. Juno entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016 (UTC; July 4 U.S. time), to begin a scientific investigation of the planet." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)
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"The Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) was an American lunar science mission in NASA's Discovery Program which used high-quality gravitational field mapping of the Moon to determine its interior structure. The two small spacecraft GRAIL A (Ebb) and GRAIL B (Flow) were launched on 10 September 2011 aboard a single launch vehicle: the most-powerful configuration of a Delta II, the 7920H-10" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAIL
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Expedition 29 was the 29th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Mike Fossum, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Satoshi Furukawa, JAXA, Flight Engineer 2 Sergei Volkov, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Anton Shkaplerov,RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Anatoli Ivanishin, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Dan Burbank, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_29
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"Galileo is the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the European Union through the European GNSS Agency (GSA), headquartered in Prague, Czechia, with two ground operations centers in Fucino, Italy and Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. The €10 billion projec is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)
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"Expedition 30 was the 30th long-duration mission to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Dan Burbank, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Anton Shkaplerov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Anatoli Ivanishin, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 André Kuipers, ESA, Flight Engineer 5 Don Pettit, NASA" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_30
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"Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) is a robotic space probe mission to Mars launched by NASA on November 26, 2011, which successfully landed Curiosity, a Mars rover, in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012. The overall objectives include investigating Mars' habitability, studying its climate and geology, and collecting data for a human mission to Mars. The rover carries a variety of scientific instruments designed by an international team." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory
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"Curiosity is a car-sized rover designed to explore the crater Gale on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission (MSL). Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26, 2011, at 15:02 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17 UTC. The Bradbury Landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a 560 million km (350 million mi) journey." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)
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"The Raspberry Pi (/paɪ/) is a series of small single-board computers developed in the United Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation to promote teaching of basic computer science in schools and in developing countries. The original model became far more popular than anticipated, selling outside its target market for uses such as robotics." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi
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"Expedition 31 was the 31st long-duration expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 André Kuipers, ESA, Flight Engineer 2 Don Pettit, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Joseph M. Acaba, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 5
Sergei Revin, RSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_31 -
"On 25 May 2012, a cargo variant of Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to successfully rendezvous with and attach to the ISS. SpaceX is contracted to deliver cargo to the ISS under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services program, and Dragon began regular cargo flights in October 2012." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon
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"The ISS has two rack sized CDRAs (Carbon Dioxide Removal Assemblies) for redundancy with the Lab CDRA primary and the Node 3 CDRA as a powered off backup because of issues with sticking valves in the Node 3. It can step in as a backup if necessary but is not the preferred CDRA because of the problems with the sticking Air Selector Valves (ASVs)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2012_%E2%80%93_Failure_of_primary_Carbon_Dioxide_Removal_Assembly_(CDRA)
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"Styx is a small natural satellite of Pluto whose discovery was announced on 11 July 2012 and it is the smallest moon of Pluto. It was imaged along with Pluto and Pluto's other moons by the New Horizons spacecraft in July 2015. A single image was returned." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styx_(moon)
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"Expedition 32 was the 32nd long-duration expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Joseph M. Acaba, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Sergei Revin, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Sunita Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Akihiko Hoshide, JAXA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_32
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"The Van Allen Probes (VAP), formerly known as the Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP), were two robotic spacecraft that were used to study the Van Allen radiation belts that surround Earth. NASA conducted the Van Allen Probes mission as part of the Living With a Star program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes
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"The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. In late 2011 MBSU-1, while still routing power correctly, ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health, and was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2011%E2%80%932012_%E2%80%93_Failure_of_Main_Bus_Switching_Unit_#1_and_Replacement_EVA
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"Exp.33 was the 33rd long-duration expedition to the ISS. The crew, Commander Sunita Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Akihiko Hoshide, JAXA, Flight Engineer 3 Kevin A. Ford, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Oleg Novitskiy, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Evgeny Tarelkin, RSA.The crew successfully experimented with the Delay-tolerant networking protocol and managed to control a Lego robot on earth from space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_33
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"Comet ISON, formally known as C/2012 S1, was a sungrazing comet discovered on 21 September 2012 by Vitaly Nevsky. During routine observations on 21 November 2012, Vitali Nevski and Artyom Novichonok monitored areas of Gemini and Cancer after their observations were delayed by clouded weather for much of the night." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_ISON
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"The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (HXDF), released on September 25, 2012, is an image of a portion of space in the center of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field image. Representing a total of two million seconds (approximately 23 days) of exposure time collected over 10 years, the image covers an area of 2.3 arcminutes by 2 arcminutes, or approximately 80% of the area of the HUDF. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Ultra-Deep_Field#Hubble_eXtreme_Deep_Field
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"Expedition 34 was the 34th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station (ISS). Some of the science objectives included investigations of the human cardiovascular system in space, studies on fish and their sensation of gravity, and the impacts of solar radiation on Earth's climate. During the expedition, the robotic platform Robonaut, a humanoid robot test platform, continued testing." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_34
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"Expedition 35 was the 35th long-duration mission to the International Space Station (ISS). The crew, Commander Canada Chris Hadfield, CSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Thomas Marshburn, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Roman Romanenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Christopher Cassidy, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Pavel Vinogradov, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Russia Aleksandr Misurkin, RSA.Technology experiments for future Moon Mars exploration." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_35
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"Announced in May 2013, NASA and Made In Space sent the first 3D printer to space, known as the 3D Printing in Zero-G Technology Demonstration (also known as 3D Printing in Zero-G Experiment or 3D Printing in Zero-G). The scientific objective of this experiment was to prove a 3D printer could be developed for use in zero gravity. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Made_In_Space,_Inc.
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"The comet was discovered on 3 January 2013 by professional astronomer Robert McNaught at the Siding Spring Observatory at Coonabarabran NSW Australia and received the official designation C/2013 A1. It was named Siding Spring based on a tradition to identify the observatory that discovered it." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2013_A1_(Siding_Spring)
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"The Higgs boson is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics, produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, one of the fields in particle physics theory. It is named after physicist Peter Higgs, who in 1964, along with five other scientists, proposed the Higgs mechanism to explain why particles have mass." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson
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"PROBA-V, or PROBA-Vegetation (the V standing for vegetation and not the Roman numeral for 5), is a satellite in the European Space Agency's PROBA series.PROBA-V is a small satellite, assuring the succession of the Vegetation instruments on board the French SPOT-4 and SPOT-5 Earth observation missions. PROBA-V was initiated by the Space and Aeronautics department of the BELgian Science Policy Office." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-V
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"On 9 May 2013, at around 10:30 a.m. CDT, the ISS crew reported seeing small white flakes floating away from the Station’s truss structure.[40] Analysis of the crew reports and images captured by external cameras confirmed a leak of ammonia coolant.Two days later a spacewalk was undertaken in order to inspect and possibly replace a pump controller box suspected of leaking." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2013_%E2%80%93_Ammonia_Leak_and_CDRA_issues_again
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"Exp. 36 was the 36th long-duration mission to the ISS. The crew, Commander Russia Pavel Vinogradov, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Aleksandr Misurkin, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 US Chris Cassidy, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 US Karen L. Nyberg, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Italy Luca Parmitano, ESA. On 2013 July 16, during EVA-23, Luca Parmitano reported that water was steadily leaking into his helmet.." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_36
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"Hippocamp, originally known as S/2004 N 1, is a small moon of Neptune, about 35 km (20 mi) in diameter, which orbits the planet in about 23 hours, just under one Earth day. Its discovery on 1 July 2013 increased the number of Neptune's known satellites to fourteen. The moon is so dim that it was not observed when the Voyager 2 space probe flew by Neptune and its moons in 1989." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocamp_(moon)
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"Inmarsat-4A F4 has been constructed by EADS Astrium and Thales Alenia Space based on the Alphabus satellite bus. It was the first Alphabus spacecraft to be launched, and as such it carries several experimental communications systems in addition to its commercial payload. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 6,649 kilograms (14,659 lb), and is expected to operate for at least fifteen years." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inmarsat-4A_F4
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"The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE /ˈlædi/) was a NASA lunar exploration and technology demonstration mission. It was launched on a Minotaur V rocket from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport on September 7, 2013.During its seven-month mission, LADEE orbited around the Moon's equator, using its instruments to study the lunar exosphere" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LADEE
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"Expedition 37 was the 37th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Karen L. Nyberg, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Luca Parmitano, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Oleg Kotov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Sergey Ryazansky, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Michael S. Hopkins, NASA. Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man, created some 525 years ago, as a blend of art and science and a symbol of the medical profession" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_37
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"The Cygnus spacecraft is an expendable American cargo spacecraft developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and now manufactured and launched by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems as part of NASA's Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program. Northrop Grumman's Antares rocket or ULA's Atlas V and is designed to transport supplies to the International Space Station (ISS) following the retirement of the American Space Shuttle." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_(spacecraft)
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"is a space probe orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is India's first interplanetary mission[15] and it made it the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after Roscosmos, NASA, and the European Space Agency. It made India the first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit and the first nation in the world to do so on its maiden attempt." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Orbiter_Mission
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"Expedition 38 was the 38th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Flight Engineer 1 Sergey Ryazansky, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Sergey Ryazansky, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Michael S. Hopkins, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Koichi Wakata, JAXA, Flight Engineer 4 Richard A. Mastracchio, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Mikhail Tyurin, RSA. The roadmap of exploration beyond low Earth orbit, Earth, Moon and Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_38
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"Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) is a spacecraft developed by NASA that went into orbit around Mars to study the planet's atmosphere. Mission goals include determining how the atmosphere and water, presumed to have once been substantial, were lost over time."
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"Swarm is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission to study the Earth's magnetic field. High-precision and high-resolution measurements of the strength, direction and variations of the Earth's magnetic field, complemented by precise navigation, accelerometer and electric field measurements, will provide data for modelling the geomagnetic field and its interaction with other physical aspects of the Earth system."
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"Gaia is a space observatory of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 2013 and expected to operate until c. 2022. The spacecraft is designed for astrometry: measuring the positions, distances and motions of stars with unprecedented precision." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)
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"Orel (Russian: Орёл, lit. 'Eagle')[7] or Oryol,[5] formerly Federation (Russian: Федерация, romanized: Federatsiya),[8] and PPTS (Russian: Перспективная Пилотируемая Транспортная Система, romanized: Perspektivnaya Pilotiruemaya Transportnaya Sistema, lit. 'Prospective Piloted Transport System'), is a project by Roscosmos to develop a new-generation, partially reusable crewed spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orel_(spacecraft)
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"Industry 4.0, the fourth industrial revolution, encompasses combination of traditional manufacturing and industrial platforms and practices with the latest smart technology. This primarily focuses on the use of large-scale machine to machine communication (M2M) and Internet of Things (IoT) deployments to provide increased automation, improved communication and self-monitoring.." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_4.0
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"Perdix drones are the main subject of an experimental project conducted by the Strategic Capabilities Office of the United States Department of Defense which aims to develop autonomous micro-drones to be used for unmanned aerial surveillance." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdix_(drone)
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"The Copernicus programme was established by the Regulation (EU) No 377/2014 in 2014, building on the previous EU's Earth monitoring initiative GMES (est. by Regulation (EU) No 911/2010).Over a few decades, European and national institutions have made substantial R&D efforts in the field of Earth observation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicus_Programme
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"Expedition 39 was the 39th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Japan Koichi Wakata, JAXA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Richard A. Mastracchio, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Mikhail Tyurin, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Oleg Artemyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Steven R. Swanson, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_39
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"Sentinel-1 is the first of the Copernicus Programme satellite constellation conducted by the European Space Agency. This mission is composed of a constellation of two satellites, Sentinel-1A and Sentinel-1B, which share the same orbital plane." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinel-1
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"Expedition 40 was the 40th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander United States Steven R. Swanson, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Oleg Artemyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Maksim Surayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Gregory R. Wiseman, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Germany Alexander Gerst, ESA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_40
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"Arrokoth was discovered on 26 June 2014 by astronomer Marc Buie and the New Horizons Search Team using the Hubble Space Telescope as part of a search for a Kuiper belt object for the New Horizons mission to target in its first extended mission; it was chosen over two other candidates to become the primary target of the mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/486958_Arrokoth
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"The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009, when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent.The replacement satellite, Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2, was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory
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"Expedition 41 was the 41st expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Maksim Surayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Gregory R. Wiseman, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Germany Alexander Gerst, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Aleksandr Samokutyayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Yelena Serova, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Barry E. Wilmore, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_41
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"Delivered on 21 September 2014 to the ISS by SpaceX CRS-4. Mission was a validation of the operational capabilities of the hardware to support rodent research provides valuable information applicable to future long-term space missions. Rodent Research-1 was a joint operation between NASA and CASIS. The experiments involved 20 mice; 10 NASA mice and 10 CASIS mice." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent_Research_Hardware_System
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"Exp.42 was the 42nd exp. to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Barry E. Wilmore, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Aleksandr Samokutyayev, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Yelena Serova, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Anton Shkaplerov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Samantha Cristoforetti, ASI-ESA, Flight Engineer 5 Terry W. Virts, NASA. One of the key aspects of Mission 42 is the preparation of parts of the ISS to allow commercial space taxis to dock at the station. " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_42
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"In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays
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"S/2015 (136472) 1, nicknamed MK2 by the discovery team, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Makemake. It is estimated to be 175 km (110 mi) in diameter (for an assumed albedo of 4%) and has a semi-major axis at least 21,000 km (13,000 mi) from Makemake." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2015_(136472)_1
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"Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR; formerly known as Triana, unofficially known as GoreSat is a NOAA space weather, space climate, and Earth observation satellite. It was launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11, 2015, from Cape Canaveral. This is NOAA's first operational deep space satellite and became its primary system of warning Earth in the event of solar magnetic storms." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory
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"Expedition 43 was the 43rd expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Terry W. Virts, Jr., NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Anton Shkaplerov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Samantha Cristoforetti, ASI-ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Scott Kelly, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_43
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"The mission encompassed Expeditions 43, 44, 45 and 46. The One-Year Mission was a scientific research project aboard the International Space Station, which studied the health effects of long-term spaceflight. Scott Kelly (identical twin of Mark Kelly) and Mikhail Korniyenko spent 340 days in space, with scientists performing medical experiments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS_year-long_mission
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"ISSpresso is the first espresso coffee machine designed for use in space, produced for the International Space Station by Argotec and Lavazza in a public-private partnership with the Italian Space Agency (ASI). The first espresso coffee was drunk in space by astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti on 3 May 2015." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSpresso
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"Expedition 44 was the 44th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Gennady Padalka, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Scott Kelly, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Kimiya Yui, JAXA, Flight Engineer 5 Kjell N. Lindgren, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_44
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"The Vegetable Production System (Veggie) is a plant growth system developed and used by NASA in outer space environments. The purpose of Veggie is to provide a self-sufficient and sustainable food source for astronauts as well as a means of recreation and relaxation through therapeutic gardening." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_Production_System
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" Expedition 45 was the 45th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander United States Scott Kelly, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Japan Kimiya Yui, JAXA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Kjell N. Lindgren, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Russia Sergey Volkov, RSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_45
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"The first direct observation of gravitational waves was made on 14 September 2015 and was announced by the LIGO and Virgo collaborations on 11 February 2016. Previously, gravitational waves had only been inferred indirectly, via their effect on the timing of pulsars in binary star systems." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves
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"LISA Pathfinder, formerly Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-2 (SMART-2), was an ESA spacecraft that was launched on 3 December 2015 on board Vega flight VV06. The mission tested technologies needed for the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA), an ESA gravitational wave observatory planned to be launched in 2034." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LISA_Pathfinder
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"Exp.46 was the 46th exp. to the ISS. The crew, Commander US Scott Kelly, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Mikhail Korniyenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Sergey Volkov, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 UK Tim Peake, ESA, Flight Engineer 5 US Timothy Kopra, NASA.Pupils from Sandringham School in St Albans made the first amateur radio call contacting Tim Peake as part of his Principia mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_46
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"The European Data Relay System (EDRS) system is a European constellation of GEO satellites that relay information and data between satellites, spacecraft, UAVs, and ground stations. The designers intend the system to provide almost full-time communication, even with satellites in low Earth orbit that often have reduced visibility from ground stations." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Data_Relay_System
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"The New Frontiers program is a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA with the purpose of researching several of the Solar System bodies, including the dwarf planet Pluto." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Frontiers_program
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"GN-z11 is a high-redshift galaxy found in the constellation Ursa Major. The galaxy was identified by a team studying data from the Hubble Space Telescope's Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey (CANDELS) and Spitzer Space Telescope's Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North (GOODS-North)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GN-z11
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"Breakthrough Starshot is a research and engineering project by the Breakthrough Initiatives to develop a proof-of-concept fleet of light sail spacecraft named StarChip, to be capable of making the journey to the Alpha Centauri star system 4.37 light-years away. It was founded in 2016 by Yuri Milner, Stephen Hawking, and Mark Zuckerberg." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot
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"Jason-3 is a satellite created by a partnership of the European Organisation for the Exploration of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) and National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), and is an international cooperative mission in which NOAA is partnering with the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES, "France's governmental space agency)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason-3
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Expedition 47 was the 47th expedition to the International Space Station., The crew, Commander United States Timothy L. Kopra, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 United Kingdom Timothy Peake, ESA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Yuri Malenchenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 3Russia Aleksey Ovchinin, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Oleg Skripochka, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Jeffrey Williams, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_47
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"Valetudo /vælɪˈtjuːdoʊ/, also known as Jupiter LXII and originally known as S/2016 J 2, is a moon of Jupiter It was discovered by Scott S. Sheppard and his team in data reaching back to 2016, but was not announced until 17 July 2018, via a Minor Planet Electronic Circular from the Minor Planet Center, which also reported the discovery of nine other Jupiter moons" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valetudo_(moon)
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"Schiaparelli EDM (Italian: [skjapaˈrɛlli]) was a failed Entry, Descent and Landing Demonstrator Module (EDM) of the ExoMars programme—a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian space agency Roscosmos. It was built in Italy and was intended to test technology for future soft landings on the surface of Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiaparelli_EDM
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"The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO or ExoMars Orbiter) is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos that sent an atmospheric research orbiter and the Schiaparelli demonstration lander to Mars in 2016 as part of the European-led ExoMars programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_Gas_Orbiter
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"The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO or ExoMars Orbiter) is a collaborative project between the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos that sent an atmospheric research orbiter and the Schiaparelli demonstration lander to Mars in 2016 as part of the European-led ExoMars programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_Gas_Orbiter
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"Expedition 48 was the 48th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander United States Jeffrey Williams, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Aleksey Ovchinin, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Oleg Skripochka, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Anatoli Ivanishin, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Japan Takuya Onishi, JAXA, Flight Engineer 6 United States Kathleen Rubins, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_48
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"Expedition 49 was the 49th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Anatoli Ivanishin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Kathleen Rubins, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Japan Takuya Onishi, JAXA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Robert S. Kimbrough, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Andrei Borisenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Russia Sergey Ryzhikov, RSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_49
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"The OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer) is a NASA asteroid study and sample-return mission. The mission's primary goal is to obtain a sample of at least 60 grams (2.1 oz) from 101955 Bennu, a carbonaceous near-Earth asteroid, and return the sample to Earth for a detailed analysis." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSIRIS-REx
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"Expedition 50 was the 50th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander United States Robert S. Kimbrough, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Sergey Ryzhikov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Andrei Borisenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Peggy Whitson, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Oleg Novitskiy, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 France Thomas Pesquet, ESA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_50
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"RAVAN was an experiment launched into low-Earth orbit on November 11, 2016.RAVAN's goal is to test new technologies that help measure Earth’s radiation imbalance, which is the difference between the amount of energy received from the Sun that reaches Earth and the amount that is reflected and emitted back into the outer space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometer_Assessment_using_Vertically_Aligned_Nanotubes
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"The Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS) is a space-based system developed by the University of Michigan and Southwest Research Institute with the aim of improving hurricane forecasting by better understanding the interactions between the sea and the air near the core of a storm." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Global_Navigation_Satellite_System
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"The NASA Sounding Rocket Program is a NASA run program of sounding rockets which has been running for over 40 years. The missions carried out by this program are primarily used for scientific research, particularly low gravity and material based research." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Sounding_Rocket_Program
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"Pandia /pænˈdaɪə/, also known as Jupiter LXV, originally known as S/2017 J 4, is an outer natural satellite of Jupiter, 3 km in diameter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandia_(moon)
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"Ersa /ˈɜːrsə/, also Jupiter LXXI, originally known as S/2018 J 1, is an outer natural satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Scott S. Sheppard and his team in 2018, and was announced on July 17, 2018, via a Minor Planet Electronic Circular from the Minor Planet Center." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ersa_(moon)
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"It was the 51st exp.to the ISS. The crew Commander US Peggy A. Whitson, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Oleg Novitskiy, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 France Thomas Pesquet, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Fyodor Yurchikhin,RSA, Flight Engineer 4 USJack D. Fischer, NASA.Installed Pressurized Mating Adapter-3 (PMA-3) Forward Shield, Installed Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) MIL-1553 Terminator, Secured Multilayer Insulation (MLI) on Japanese Manipulator System" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_51
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"Exp.52 is the 52nd expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Fyodor Yurchikhin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Jack Fischer, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Peggy Whitson, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Randy Bresnik, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Sergey Ryazansky, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 Italy Paolo Nespoli, ESA.The launch of 5 Nano Satellites one of them being a Sputnik satellite named "Zerkalo" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_52
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"The Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) is a NASA telescope on the International Space Station, designed and dedicated to the study of the extraordinary gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear physics environments embodied by neutron stars, exploring the exotic states of matter where density and pressure are higher than in atomic nuclei." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_Star_Interior_Composition_Explorer
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"The Cassini space probe was deliberately disposed of via a controlled fall into Saturn's atmosphere on September 15, 2017, ending its nearly two-decade-long mission. This method was chosen to prevent biological contamination of any of the moons of Saturn now thought to offer potentially habitable environments. Factors that influenced the mission end method included the amount of rocket fuel left, the health of the spacecraft, and funding for operations on Earth."
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"Expedition 53 was the 53rd expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander United States Randolph J. Bresnik, NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Sergey Ryazansky, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 Italy Paolo Nespoli, ESA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Alexander Misurkin, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Mark T. Vande Hei, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Joseph M. Acaba, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_53
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"Formally designated 1I/2017 U1, it was discovered by Robert Weryk using the Pan-STARRS telescope at Haleakala Observatory, Hawaii, on 19 October 2017, 40 days after it passed its closest point to the Sun on 9 September. When it was first observed, it was about 33 million km (21 million mi; 0.22 AU) from Earth (about 85 times as far away as the Moon), and already heading away from the Sun." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BBOumuamua
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Expedition 54 was the 54th expedition to the International Space Station.The crew, Commander Russia Alexander Misurkin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Mark T. Vande Hei, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Joseph M. Acaba, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Anton Shkaplerov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Scott D. Tingle, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Japan Norishige Kanai, JAXA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_54
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"Starlink is a satellite constellation being constructed by SpaceX to provide satellite Internet access. The constellation will consist of thousands of mass-produced small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO), working in combination with ground transceivers. SpaceX also plans to sell some of the satellites for military, scientific, or exploratory purposes." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlink
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"Expedition 55 was the 55th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Anton Shkaplerov, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Scott D. Tingle, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Japan Norishige Kanai, JAXA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Andrew Feustel, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Oleg Artemyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Richard R. Arnold, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_55
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"The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) mission is a robotic lander designed to study the deep interior of the planet Mars. It was manufactured by Lockheed Martin Space Systems, is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and most of its scientific instruments were built by European agencies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InSight
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"Mars Cube One (or MarCO) was a Mars flyby mission launched on 5 May 2018 alongside NASA's InSight Mars lander mission. It consisted of two nanospacecraft, MarCO-A and MarCO-B, that provided a real-time communications link to Earth for InSight during its entry, descent, and landing (EDL) on 26 November 2018 - when InSight was out of line of sight from the Earth." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Cube_One
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"The crew, Commander US Andrew Feustel,NASA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Oleg Artemyev, RSA,Flight Engineer 3 US Richard R. Arnold, NASA,Flight Engineer 4 Russia Sergey Prokopyev, RSA,Flight Engineer 5 Germany Alexander Gerst, ESA,Flight Engineer 6 US Serena M. Auñón-Chancellor, NASA.The expedition comes at a time when private corporations and the governments around the world are rapidly developing crew capabilities for human space exploration." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_56
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"The Parker Solar Probe (abbreviated PSP; previously Solar Probe, Solar Probe Plus or Solar Probe+) is a NASA robotic spacecraft launched in 2018, with the mission of repeatedly probing and making observations of the outer corona of the Sun.It will approach to within 9.86 solar radii (6.9 million km or 4.3 million miles) from the center of the Sun and by 2025 will travel, at closest approach, as fast as 690,000 km/h, or 0.064% the speed of light." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parker_Solar_Probe
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"Aeolus is an Earth observation satellite operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was built by Airbus Defence and Space and launched on 22 August 2018. ADM-Aeolus is the first satellite with equipment capable of performing global wind-component-profile observation and will provide much-needed information to improve weather forecasting." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADM-Aeolus
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"On 29 August 2018, at 7:00 p.m. EDT, a small pressure leak was observed in the Russian segment of the ISS. The crew were allowed to sleep as mission controllers determined there was no danger to them, and investigation the following day revealed a 2mm hole near the hatch of the Soyuz spacecraft." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station_maintenance#2018_%E2%80%93_Leak_in_Soyuz_Orbital_Module
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"Expedition 57 was the 57th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Germany Alexander Gerst, ESA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Serena M. Auñón-Chancellor, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Russia Sergey Prokopyev, RSA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Anne McClain, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 Canada David Saint-Jacques, CSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_57
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"BepiColombo is a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to the planet Mercury. The mission comprises two satellites launched together: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and Mio (Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter, MMO). The mission will perform a comprehensive study of Mercury, including characterization of its magnetic field, magnetosphere, and both interior and surface structure." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BepiColombo
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"On October 30, 2018, after the spacecraft ran out of fuel, NASA announced that the telescope would be retired.[41] The telescope was shut down the same day, bringing an end to its nine-year service. Kepler observed 530,506 stars and discovered 2,662 exoplanets over its lifetime.[14] A newer NASA mission, TESS, launched in 2018, is continuing the search for exoplanets." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope#History
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"Expedition 58 was the 58th expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Anne McClain, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 Canada David Saint-Jacques, CSA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_58
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"Expedition 59 was the 59th Expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Oleg Kononenko, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 Canada David Saint-Jacques, CSA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Anne McClain, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Aleksey Ovchinin, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 United States Nick Hague, NASA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Christina Koch, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_59
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"The Artemis program is an ongoing government-funded crewed spaceflight program that has the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the Moon,specifically at the lunar south pole region by 2024.The program is carried out predominantly by NASA,U.S.commercial spaceflight companies contracted by NASA,and international partners:EuropeanSpaceAgency, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency,Canadian Space Agency and theAustralian Space Agency." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program
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"The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is a large telescope array consisting of a global network of radio telescopes.The first image of a black hole, at the center of galaxy Messier 87, was published by the EHT Collaboration on April 10, 2019, in a series of six scientific publications. The array made this observation at a wavelength of 1.3 mm and with a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of 25 microarcseconds." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_Horizon_Telescope
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"Expedition 60 was the 60th Expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Russia Aleksey Ovchinin, RSA, Flight Engineer 1 United States Nick Hague, NASA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Christina Koch, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA, Flight Engineer 4 Italy Luca Parmitano, ESA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Andrew R. Morgan, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_60
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"Expedition 61 was the 61st Expedition to the International Space Station. The crew, Commander Italy Luca Parmitano, ESA, Flight Engineer 1 Russia Aleksandr Skvortsov, RSA, Flight Engineer 2 United States Andrew Morgan, NASA, Flight Engineer 3 United States Christina Koch, NASA, Flight Engineer 4 Russia Oleg Skripochka, RSA, Flight Engineer 5 United States Jessica Meir, NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_61
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"The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02) is a particle physics experiment module that is mounted on the International Space Station (ISS).The experiment is a recognized CERN experiment (RE1). The module is a detector that measures antimatter in cosmic rays; this information is needed to understand the formation of the Universe and search for evidence of dark matter." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Magnetic_Spectrometer#Operations,_condition_and_repairs
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"It is a European space telescope to determine the size of known extrasolar planets, which will allow the estimation of their mass, density, composition and their formation. Launched on 18 December 2019, it is the first Small-class mission in ESA's Cosmic Vision science programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHEOPS
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"The United States Space Force (USSF) is the space warfare service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, and is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services. The sixth and youngest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, it was the first branch of the military established since the formation of the independent U.S. Air Force in 1947." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force
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"Comet ATLAS was discovered on CCD images taken on December 28, 2019, with a 0.5 m (20 in) reflecting telescope atop Mauna Loa in Hawaii.The images were taken as part of the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS). At the time of its discovery, the comet shone at magnitude 19.6 in the constellation Ursa Major as viewed from Earth" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2019_Y4_(ATLAS)
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"The first human cases of COVID-19 were identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. At this stage it is not possible to determine precisely how humans in China were initially infected with SARS-CoV-2." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic
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"The 62nd long duration mission to the ISS.The crew,Commander Russia Oleg Skripochka,RKA, Flight Engineer 1 US Jessica Meir, NASA,Flight Engineer 2 US Andrew Morgan, NASA,Flight Engineer 3 Russia Anatoli Ivanishin, RSA,Flight Engineer 4 Russia Ivan Vagner, RSA,Flight Engineer 5 US Christopher Cassidy, NASA.On 31 October 2019 it was announced that NASA astronaut Chris Cassidy would fly the mission in the face of delays with the Commercial Crew Program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_62
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"The Solar Orbiter (SolO) is a Sun-observing satellite, developed by the European Space Agency (ESA). SolO is intended to perform detailed measurements of the inner heliosphere and nascent solar wind, and perform close observations of the polar regions of the Sun, which is difficult to do from Earth, both serving to answer the question "How does the Sun create and control the heliosphere?" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Orbiter
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"The Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (Orion MPCV) is a class of partially reusable space capsule planned to be used after 2021 in NASA's human spaceflight programs. The spacecraft consists of a Crew Module (CM) manufactured by Lockheed Martin and the European Service Module (ESM) manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)#History
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"C/2020 F3 (NEOWISE), or Comet NEOWISE, is a retrograde comet with a near-parabolic orbit discovered on March 27, 2020 by the NEOWISE space telescope.It passed closest to the Sun on July 3, 2020. As of 10 June 2020 it was apparent magnitude 7, and if it survives perihelion 0.29 AU (43 million km) from the Sun, it is expected to be visible to the naked eye in July." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2020_F3_(NEOWISE)
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"On 8 April 2020, it was announced that NASA had awarded the fourth (after Astrobotic's, Intuitive Machines' and OrbitBeyond's awards) CLPS contract for Masten Space Systems. The contract, worth US$ 75.9 million, is for Masten's XL-1 lunar lander to deliver payloads from NASA and other customers to the south pole of the Moon in late 2022." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services#History
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"The crew, Commander US Chris Cassidy,NASA, Flight Engineer1Rus.Anatoli Ivanishin,Roscosmos, Flight Eng.2 Rus.Ivan Vagner,Roscosmos, Flight Eng.3 US Doug Hurley,NASA,Michael S.Hopkins,NASA, Flight Eng.4US Bob Behnken,NASA,Victor J.Glover,NASA, Flight Eng.5Japan Soichi Noguchi,JAXA, Flight Eng.6US Shannon Walker,NASA, Flight Eng.7 Rus.Sergey Ryzhikov,Roscosmos, Flight Eng.8 Rus.Sergey Kud-Sverchkov,Roscosmos, Flight Eng.9 US Kathleen Rubins,NASA." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_63
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"Next-generation crewed spacecraft is a type of reusable spacecraft developed and manufactured by China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC). The prototype of the spacecraft underwent its first uncrewed test flight on 5 May 2020.The crew carrier is designed to ferry astronauts to the Chinese space station in Earth orbit as well as conducting lunar exploration." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_crewed_spacecraft
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"Kounotori 9 (こうのとり9号機), also known as HTV-9 is the 9th flight of the H-II Transfer Vehicle, a robotic cargo spacecraft to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). It was launched on 20 May 2020, at 17:31:00 UTC.Kounotori 9 is the last HTV of the original model, with following missions replaced with the HTV-X" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kounotori_9
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"The Crew Dragon spacecraft, launched on 30 May 2020 at 3:22:45 p.m. EDT (19:22:45 UTC). The first attempt to launch on 27 May 2020 was aborted at T−16:53 min. due to bad weather caused by Tropical Storm Bertha.The first crewed orbital spaceflight launched from the United States since the final Space Shuttle mission, STS-135, in 2011.The mission launched spacecraft commander Douglas Hurley and joint-operations commander Robert Behnken to the ISS." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2
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"The Hope Mars Mission or Hope (Arabic: مسبار الأمل, Al Amal), also called the Emirates Mars Mission, is a planned space exploration probe mission to Mars set for launch on 14 July 2020.It was built by the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre, an Emirati space organization, as well as the University of Colorado Boulder, Arizona State University, and the University of California, Berkeley." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Mars_Mission
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"Tianwen-1 (known as Huoxing-1, HX-1 during development ) is a planned mission by China to send a spacecraft, which consists of an orbiter, a lander and a rover, to Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianwen-1
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"Ingenuity (also known as the Mars Helicopter) is a robotic helicopter that is planned to be used to test the technology to scout interesting targets on Mars, and help plan the best driving route for future Mars rovers.The small drone helicopter is planned for deployment in 2021 from the Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Helicopter_Ingenuity
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"Perseverance is a Mars rover manufactured by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for use in NASA's Mars 2020 mission. Nearly identical in design to the Curiosity rover, Perseverance will carry seven scientific instruments to study the Martian surface at Jezero crater, 23 cameras in total, and two microphones. The rover will also be accompanied by the helicopter Ingenuity, which will help Perseverance to scout for locations to study." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)
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"Mars 2020 is a Mars rover mission by NASA's Mars Exploration Program that includes the Perseverance rover with a planned launch on 30 July 2020 at 13:10 UTC, and touch down in Jezero crater on Mars on 18 February 2021.It will investigate an astrobiologically relevant ancient environment on Mars and investigate its surface geological processes " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_2020
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"GW190521 is a gravitational wave signal resulting from the merger of two black holes near a third supermassive black hole,which was associated with a coincident and uncharacteristic flash of light.The event was observed by the LIGO-Virgo detectors on 21 May 2019 at 03:02:29 UTC, and later confirmed in studies published on 2 September 2020. The event was 17 billion light years away,within a 765 deg2 area towards Coma Berenices, Canes Venatici, or Phoenix." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW190521
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"Expedition 64 crew:Commander Russia Sergey Ryzhikov,RSA Second spaceflight Flight Engineer 1,US Kathleen Rubins,NASA Second spaceflight, Flight Engineer 2,Russia Sergey Kud-Sverchkov,RSA First spaceflight, Flight Engineer 3 US Michael S. Hopkins,NASA Second spaceflight,Flight Engineer 4 US Victor J. Glover, NASA First spaceflight,Flight Engineer 5,Japan Soichi Noguchi,JAXA Third spaceflight,Flight Engineer 6,US Shannon Walker,NASA Second spaceflight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_64
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"High Definition Earth Viewing (HDEV) cameras were a payload package delivered to the International Space Station on the SpaceX CRS-3 Mission, launched on April 18, 2014." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Definition_Earth_Viewing_cameras - https://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload
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"The Crew Dragon C207 spacecraft, expected to launch no earlier than 23 October 2020 on a Falcon 9 from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, will carry NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker along with JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi, all members of the Expedition 64 crew.Crew-1 will be the first operational mission to the International Space Station in the Commercial Crew Program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-1
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"SEOSat-Ingenio (short for Spanish Earth Observation Satellite-Ingenio), was a Spanish project to produce a satellite capable of providing wide-field imagery (230 frames a day, 60 km × 60 km) ensuring a repeat cycle of 38 days at 2.5 metre panchromatic resolution and 10 metre colour resolution, from a sun-synchronous polar orbit; it was Spain's first optical imaging satellite." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEOSat-Ingenio
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"Poisk (Russian: По́иск, lit. 'Search'), also known as the Mini-Research Module 2 (MRM 2), Малый исследовательский модуль 2, or МИМ 2,is a docking module of the International Space Station. Its original name was Docking Module 2 (Stykovochniy Otsek 2 (SO-2)), as it is almost identical to the Pirs Docking Compartment.Added in 2009, Poisk was the first major Russian addition to the International Space Station since 2001." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_spacewalks
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"The Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich satellite, formerly Sentinel-6A, Jason-CS A (Jason Continuity of Service-A), is a radar altimeter satellite which was developed by European Space Agency (ESA) in the context of the European Copernicus Programme led by the European Commission, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), NASA, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), CNES." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinel-6_Michael_Freilich
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"Several hurricanes and storms over the 2010s had raised the concerns of structural engineers over the stability of the observatory. On September 21, 2017, high winds associated with Hurricane Maria caused the 430 MHz line feed to break and fall onto the primary dish, damaging roughly 30 of the 38,000 aluminum panels." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_Telescope#2020_damage,_decommissioning_plans,_and_collapse
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"The spacecraft collected and stored the samples in separate sealed containers inside the sample-return capsule (SRC), which is equipped with thermal insulation. The container is 40 cm (16 in) external diameter, 20 cm (7.9 in) in height, and a mass of about 16 kg (35 lb)" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayabusa2#Sample_return
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"The Nanoracks Bishop Airlock is a commercially-funded airlock module launched to the International Space Station on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020.The module was built by Nanoracks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing.It is used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), and other commercial and governmental customers." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoracks_Bishop_Airlock
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"On 9 December 2020, Vice President Pence announced a group of 18 astronauts, the Artemis team, who could be selected as astronauts of Artemis missions" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program#Astronauts
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"Three Raptor engines, SN30, SN36, and SN42. SpaceX conducted a static fire on 20 October 2020. SN8 then had body flaps and a nosecone with front flaps installed. A single engine static fire was carried out on 10 November 2020." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship#Testing
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"This is the first lunar sample-return mission since Luna 24 in 1976 and – if successful – would make China the third country to return samples from the Moon after United States and Soviet Union. It launched from the Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site in Hainan Island." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang%27e_5
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"NASA's Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a Constellation of Smallsats (TROPICS) mission is a constellation of small satellites that will measure temperature and moisture profiles and precipitation in tropical systems with unprecedented temporal frequency. "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-Resolved_Observations_of_Precipitation_structure_and_storm_Intensity_with_a_Constellation_of_Smallsats
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"Nauka (Russian: Нау́ка; lit. Science), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), (Russian: Многофункциональный лабораторный модуль, or МЛМ), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS) which has not yet been launched into space. The MLM is funded by the Roscosmos State Corporation." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauka_(ISS_module)
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"SpaceX Crew-3 will be the third crewed operational flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft, and the fourth overall crewed orbital flight. The mission is currently planned to launch in October 2021. At a NASA briefing held on 29 September 2020, Benji Reed, senior director of human spaceflight programs at SpaceX, said the final launch date for Crew-3 will be determined by the refurbishment of the Resilience capsule after Crew-1 recovery." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-3
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"SpaceX Inspiration4 (or Inspiration4) is a planned SpaceX Crew Dragon mission to low Earth orbit operated by SpaceX on behalf of Jared Isaacman. The flight will launch in October 2021 with four crew members aboard Crew Dragon Resilience.Inspiration4 will be the first crewed space mission to fly with only civilians on board."
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"Electra is a satellite development project initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) as the first partnership project under its ARTES-33 programme. In conjunction with satellite operator SES and satellite builder OHB Systems, the Electra project seeks to develop, launch and validate in orbit an electric-only propulsion platform for geostationary communications satellites of below 3 tonnes launch mass." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_(satellite)
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"Spacewalk to activate and install the Airbus Bartolomeo exposed experiment platform and the Columbus Ka band Terminal (COL-Ka) onto Columbus. Remove H fixtures from the P-6 Truss in preparation for installation of upgrades to the solar arrays. Due to issues with the installation of Bartolomeo, only four out of the six cables could be installed." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_spacewalks#2021
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"Install a new lithium-ion battery on the P-4 truss, where an earlier lithium replacement blew a fuse in April 2019. Upgrade high definition video and camera gear on ISS exterior and Kibō Robotic Arm. Remove H fixtures on the P-4 in preparation for installation of upgrades to the solar arrays." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Space_Station_spacewalks#2021
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"The James Webb Space Telescope is a space telescope that is planned to be one of the successors to the Hubble Space Telescope. The JWST will provide improved infrared resolution and sensitivity over Hubble, and will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe, such as the formation of the first galaxies." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope
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"The recruitment campaign was announced at press conferences in February 2021.[10] Applications for the roles of "astronaut" and "astronaut (with a physical disability)" in the ESA Directorate of Human and Robotic Exploration Programmes are being accepted between 31 March and 28 May." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_European_Space_Agency_Astronaut_Group
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"Expedition 65 is scheduled to be the 65th long duration expedition to the International Space Station. The mission is scheduled to begin on 9 April 2021, with the departure of Soyuz MS-17. Assuming SpaceX's Crew-1 mission lasts its expected ~180 days. install the first four of a set of six new Roll Out Solar Arrays." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_65
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"NASA named Ingenuity's first take-off and landing airstrip Wright Brothers Field, which the UN agency ICAO gave an airport code of JZRO for Jezero Crater,[95] and the drone itself a type designator of IGY, call-sign INGENUITY." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingenuity_(helicopter)#Tributes_to_the_Wright_brothers -
"SpaceX Crew-2 will be the second crewed operational flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft, and the third overall crewed orbital flight. The mission is currently planned to launch on 30 March 2021,[1] pending refurbishment of the Endeavour capsule.[2][3] The Crew-2 mission will transport four members of the crew to the International Space Station." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-2
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"Tianhe follows in the footsteps of Salyut, Skylab, Mir, International Space Station, Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 space stations. It is the first module of a third-generation Chinese modular space station. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian Mir, Russian OPSEK, and the International Space Station. Operations will be controlled from the Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center in the People's Republic of China." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe_core_module -
"The Tianwen-1 lander successfully landed in the preselected landing area in the southern part of the Mars Utopia Planitia.The landing phase began with the release of the protective capsule containing the lander/rover. The capsule made an atmospheric entry followed by a descent phase under parachute, after which the lander used retro-propulsion to soft-land on Mars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianwen-1#Landing_on_Mars -
"Shenzhou 12 is a Chinese spaceflight planned for launch on 17 June 2021. The flight will mark the seventh crewed Chinese spaceflight and the seventh crewed flight of the Shenzhou program. The spacecraft is scheduled to carry three CNSA taikonauts on the first flight to Tianhe, the first module of the Tiangong space station. The chinese crew: Nie Haisheng, CNSA
Third spaceflight, Deng Qingming, CNSA
First spaceflight, Ye Guangfu, CNSA
First spaceflight." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhou_12 -
"Luna 25 (Luna-Glob lander) is a planned lunar lander mission by the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos). It will land near the lunar south pole at the Boguslavsky crater.It was renamed from Luna-Glob lander to Luna 25 to emphasize the continuity of the Soviet Luna programme from the 1970s, though it is still part of what was at one point conceptualized as the Luna-Glob lunar exploration program." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_25
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"Expedition 66 is scheduled to be the 66th long duration Expedition to the International Space Station. The mission will begin upon the departure of Soyuz MS-18, currently scheduled for October 13 2021. The mission will be commanded by ESA astronaut Thomas Pesquet, who will become the fourth European astronaut to Command the ISS, and the first French astronaut to command the orbital laboratory." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_66 -
"Lucy is a planned NASA space probe that will tour five Jupiter trojans, asteroids which share Jupiter's orbit around the Sun, orbiting either ahead of or behind the planet and one main belt asteroid. All target encounters will be fly-by encounters" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_(spacecraft)
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"SpaceX Crew-3 will be the third crewed operational flight of a Crew Dragon spacecraft, and the fourth overall crewed orbital flight. The final launch date for Crew-3 will be determined by the refurbishment of the Resilience capsule after Crew-1 recovery. The mission will send up German ESA astronaut Matthias Maurer.[8][9][10] NASA astronauts Raja Chari and Thomas Marshburn were added on 14 December 2020 to the crew." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-3
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"The Crew-3 mission will transport three NASA astronauts and one ESA astronaut to the International Space Station for a six-month long-duration mission. The crew: Raja Chari, NASA Exp. 66 First spaceflight , Thomas Marshburn, NASA Expedition 66 Third spaceflight , Matthias Maurer, ESA Exp.66 First spaceflight , Kayla Barron, NASA Exp.66 First spaceflight " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-3 -
"BIOMASS is an Earth observing satellite planned for launch by the European Space Agency (ESA) in October 2022.
The mission will provide the first comprehensive measurements of global forest biomass. The mission is meant to last for five years, monitoring at least eight growth cycles in the worlds’ forests." -
"Axiom Space was founded in 2016 with the goal of creating the world's first commercial space station. In early 2020, NASA announced that Axiom had been granted access to the forward port of the ISS' Harmony module, to which Axiom plans to dock the Axiom Orbital Segment." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Axiom_Space-1
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"Psyche is a planned orbiter mission that will explore the origin of planetary cores by studying the metallic asteroid 16 Psyche. Lindy Elkins-Tanton of Arizona State University is the principal investigator who proposed this mission for NASA's Discovery Program. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) will manage the project." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyche_(spacecraft)
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"Euclid is a visible to near-infrared space telescope currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Euclid Consortium. The objective of the Euclid mission is to better understand dark energy and dark matter by accurately measuring the acceleration of the universe." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid_(spacecraft)
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"EarthCare is a planned joint European/Japanese (ESA / JAXA / NICT) satellite, the sixth of ESA's Earth Explorer Programme. The main goal of the mission is the observation and characterization of clouds and aerosols as well as measuring the reflected solar radiation and the infrared radiation emitted from Earth's surface and atmosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EarthCARE
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"PROBA-3 is the third satellite mission in the European Space Agency's series of PROBA low-cost satellites that are being used to validate new spacecraft technologies while also carrying scientific instruments." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROBA-3
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"Rosalind Franklin previously known as the ExoMars rover, is a planned robotic Mars rover, part of the international ExoMars programme led by the European Space Agency and the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation. The mission was scheduled to launch in July 2020, then postponed to 2022." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin_(rover)
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"The JUICE) is an interplanetary spacecraft in development by the European Space Agency (ESA) with Airbus Defence and Space as the main contractor. The mission will study three of Jupiter's Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa (excluding the more volcanically active Io) all of which are thought to have significant bodies of liquid water beneath their surfaces, making them potentially habitable environments." https://en.wkipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer
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"The Crew-4 mission will transport four members of the crew to the International Space Station (ISS). As of May 2021, two NASA astronauts and one ESA astronaut have been assigned to the mission, with one more international astronaut to be named later. The crew: Kjell Lindgren, NASA Exp. 67/68 Second spaceflight , Robert Hines, NASA Exp. 67/68 First spaceflight , Samantha Cristoforetti, ESA Exp. 67/68Second spaceflight " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Crew-4
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"Considering the long development cycle for a new observational space system, EUMETSAT has been working on the definition and the planning for a Meteosat Third Generation (MTG) system since the year 2000." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteosat#Third_Generation_(%22MTG%22)
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"Artemis 2 (also known as Artemis II) is the planned first crewed mission of NASA's Orion spacecraft to be launched by the Space Launch System in 2023. The current plan is for a crewed Orion spacecraft to perform a lunar flyby test and return to Earth. This is planned to be the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit since Apollo 17 in 1972." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_2
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"It is a planned joint venture mission between the European Space Agency and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. SMILE will image for the first time the magnetosphere in soft X-rays and UV during up to 40 hours per orbit, improving our understanding of the dynamic interaction between the solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMILE_(spacecraft)
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"Electra is a satellite development project initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) as the first partnership project under its ARTES-33 programme. In conjunction with satellite operator SES and satellite builder OHB Systems, the Electra project seeks to develop, launch and validate in orbit an electric-only propulsion platform for geostationary communications satellites of below 3 tonnes launch mass." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_(satellite)
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"The VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) is a lunar rover by NASA planned to be delivered to the surface of the Moon in 2023. The rover will be tasked with prospecting for lunar resources in permanently shadowed areas in the lunar south pole region, especially by mapping the distribution and concentration of water ice." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIPER_(rover)
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"Artemis 3 (also known as Artemis III) is a planned 2024 flight of NASA's Orion spacecraft to be launched on the Space Launch System. It is planned to be the second crewed mission of the Artemis program and the first crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in 1972." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_3
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"The FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX) is a planned mission by the European Space Agency to launch a satellite to monitor the global steady-state chlorophyll fluorescence in terrestrial vegetation. FLEX was selected for funding on 19 November 2015 and will be launched on a Vega C rocket from Guiana Space Centre in 2024." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLEX_(satellite)
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"Hera is the European component of the ESA–NASA AIDA mission. The Hera spacecraft, approved on 29 November 2019, will focus on key measurements to validate impact and asteroid deflection models such as the detailed characterisation of the impact crater made by the DART impactor." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDA_(mission)#Hera
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"FORUM is an Earth observing satellite that is planned to launch in 2025 or 2026.The FORUM mission is led by the European Space Agency and has as its main goal the study of the Earth's radiation budget. It is expected that FORUM's measurements will be improving climate models and offer new insights into the way climate change is affecting the planet." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-infrared_Outgoing_Radiation_Understanding_and_Monitoring
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"Venera-D (Russian: Венера-Д, pronounced [vʲɪˈnʲɛrə ˈdɛ]) is a proposed Russian space mission to Venus that would include an orbiter and a lander to be launched in 2026 or 2031. The orbiter's prime objective is to perform observations with the use of a radar. The lander, based on the Venera design, would be capable of operating for a long duration (≈3 h) on the planet's surface." in Russian." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera-D
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"Planetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) is a space telescope under development by the European Space Agency for launch in 2026. The mission goals are to search for planetary transits across up to one million stars, and to discover and characterize rocky extrasolar planets around yellow dwarf stars (like our sun), subgiant stars, and red dwarf stars." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLATO_(spacecraft)
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"The Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey (ARIEL), is a space telescope planned for launch in 2028 as the fourth medium-class mission of the European Space Agency's Cosmic Vision programme. The mission is aimed at observing at least 1,000 known exoplanets using the transit method, studying and characterising the planets' chemical composition and thermal structures." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIEL
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"The Comet Interceptor is a robotic spacecraft mission led by the European Space Agency (ESA) planned for a 2028 launch. The spacecraft will be "parked" at the Sun-Earth L2 point and wait for up to three years for a long-period comet to flyby at a reachable trajectory and speed." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Interceptor
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"It is an X-ray observatory mission selected by ESA within its Cosmic Vision Program to address the Hot and Energetic Universe scientific theme. Athena will operate in the energy range of 0.2–12keV and will offer spectroscopic and imaging capabilities exceeding those of currently operating X-ray astronomy satellites.." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Telescope_for_High_Energy_Astrophysics
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"The Space Infrared Telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA), is a proposed infrared space telescope, follow-on to the successful Akari space observatory. It is a collaboration between European and Japanese scientists, which was selected in May 2018 by the European Space Agency (ESA) as a finalist for the next Medium class Mission 5 of the Cosmic Vision programme." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPICA_(spacecraft)
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"It is a space telescope mission proposal by the European Space Agency that would study gamma-ray bursts and X-rays for investigating the early universe. If developed, the mission would investigate star formation rates and metallicity evolution, as well as studying the sources and physics of reionization." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THESEUS_(satellite)
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EnVision is a proposed orbital mission to Venus that would perform high-resolution radar mapping and atmospheric studies. The mission would help scientists understand the relationships between its geological activity and the atmosphere, and it would investigate why Venus and Earth took such different evolutionary paths.
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"The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) is a mission led by the European Space Agency to detect and accurately measure gravitational waves—tiny ripples in the fabric of space-time—from astronomical sources. LISA would be the first dedicated space-based gravitational wave detector. It aims to measure gravitational waves directly by using laser interferometry." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna
![Mir EO-19 (Russian: Мир ЭО-19, also known as Principal Expedition 19)[3] was the nineteenth crewed expedition to the space station Mir](https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/photo/16465689/image/3e8e13b811ca0a67f0bcb9370c27c74e?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAJB6ZCNNAN7BE7WDQ%2F20250811%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20250811T165347Z&X-Amz-Expires=604800&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=6c49631d3c17c16976fa96e549ba8914d7d8db8d485ae0baa0140d8dcfd71269)
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