-
1501
Estate
A rigid and closed social group defined by birth within the Old Regime society. Estates were divided mainly into nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate, with a strict hierarchy and little social mobility, limiting the rights of the lower classes. -
1501
Nobility
The privileged estate of Old Regime society. Most members inherited titles and privileges, controlled vast lands, held government or military positions, and were exempt from certain taxes, enjoying significant legal and social advantages over the rest of the population. -
1501
Bourgeoisie
A social group within the Third Estate that included merchants, artisans, professionals, and middle-class individuals. The bourgeoisie played a key role in economic development and the French Revolution, demanding more political representation and rights. -
1501
Guilds
Associations of artisans and merchants organized by trade in medieval cities and the Old Regime. Guilds regulated product quality, prices, and worker training, protecting members but also limiting competition and innovation. -
1501
Third Estate
The estate encompassing everyone not part of the nobility or clergy, representing the majority of the population. It included peasants, bourgeoisie, and urban workers, who lacked privileges and bore the tax burden supporting the state and privileged estates. -
1501
Ancient Demographic Cycle
A population model typical of the Old Regime, marked by high birth and death rates leading to slow and fluctuating population growth. This cycle was strongly affected by wars, famines, and epidemics, lasting until the demographic transition of the 19th century. -
1501
Seigneurial System
A feudal organization where the lord had rights over land and its inhabitants. Peasants, or serfs, worked for the lord in exchange for protection but faced limited freedoms and owed tributes, reinforcing hierarchical power during the Middle Ages and the Old Regime. -
1501
Clergy
A privileged estate in the Old Regime, dedicated to religious and educational activities. The clergy owned significant wealth and lands, were exempt from taxes, and had direct influence in political and social matters due to the close relationship between religion and the state. -
Period: 1501 to
Ancien Régime
Political, social, and economic system predominant in Europe until the 18th century, characterized by absolute monarchy, an estate-based society, and an agrarian economy dominated by the privileges of the nobility and clergy over the Third Estate. It was progressively dismantled by liberal revolutions -
Montesquieu
was a French philosopher and jurist born in 1689. He is best known for his theory of separation of powers, which greatly influenced modern political systems. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748, helped shape the structure of many democratic governments. He died in 1755. -
Voltaire
born in 1694, was a French writer and philosopher who defended freedom of speech and civil liberties. His satirical work Candide, published in 1759, is a sharp critique of organized religion and blind optimism. Voltaire remained a significant figure in the Enlightenment until his death in 1778. -
Absolutism
A political system in which the monarch held absolute power, centralizing authority without limitations from parliaments or other bodies. This regime peaked in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, with figures like Louis XIV of France. -
Separation of Powers
A principle proposed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), advocating for the division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This idea influenced modern democracies, promoting power balance and limiting absolute authority. -
Encyclopedia
A work created by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert in the 18th century, aiming to compile and disseminate the scientific and cultural knowledge of the time. The Encyclopedia became a symbol of the Enlightenment, promoting ideas of liberty and progress while questioning established authorities. -
Declaration of Independence of the United States
A document signed on July 4, 1776, by representatives of the Thirteen American Colonies, proclaiming their independence from Great Britain. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it incorporated Enlightenment ideas such as liberty and self-determination, marking the start of the American Revolution and the foundation of a new democratic state. -
National Sovereignty
A political principle asserting that power resides in the people, who delegate their authority to elected representatives. Central to Enlightenment thought and late 18th-century revolutions, it rejected absolute monarchy and divine right, advocating for governments accountable to the nation’s will. -
Domestic System
An artisanal production system in Europe before the Industrial Revolution, where work was done at home or in small workshops. Families worked for a merchant intermediary, making it a precursor to the modern factory system. -
Enlightened Despotism
An 18th-century government system where monarchs adopted Enlightenment ideas, promoting reforms in education, administration, and the economy while retaining absolute power. Monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia and Charles III of Spain sought the people's welfare through centralized control. -
Constitution
A set of fundamental laws organizing and regulating the state's functioning and citizens' rights and duties. The first constitutions, like the U.S. Constitution (1787) and the French Constitution (1791), emerged in the 18th century and became the basis for modern states after liberal revolutions, establishing the separation of powers and limiting absolute authority. -
Census Suffrage
An electoral system of the modern age and the 19th century where only citizens with a certain amount of wealth or those paying taxes could vote. This system limited political participation to the upper classes, excluding most of the population, and was criticized by liberal and democratic movements demanding universal suffrage. -
Constitutional Monarchy
A system of government where the monarch’s power is limited by a constitution or fundamental laws, establishing a separation of powers and restricting absolute authority. It emerged in the 18th century with the Glorious Revolution in England and expanded in the 19th century, driven by liberal ideas advocating for a balance between monarchical power and citizen-controlled government. -
Period: to
Enlightenment
An 18th-century intellectual movement that promoted reason, science, and education to improve society. Enlightenment philosophers advocated for human rights, the separation of powers, and a knowledge-based society, influencing revolutions like the French and American. -
Period: to
Liberalism
Political and economic ideology that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing individual freedoms, equality before the law, and limited government. It advocates for free markets, private property, and the rule of law as central principles. Liberalism became a driving force behind the Enlightenment and the revolutions of the late 18th century, seeking to dismantle feudal structures and promote constitutional governance. -
French revolution
-
First liberal revolution
-
Second liberal revolution
