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Agree to open 10 more ports to foreign trade; Reduced taxes on foreign imports; Accepted open preaching of Christianity (China has tried to isolate itself from foreign influence); Foreigners permitted to travel anywhere in China; Chinese government refused to accept the terms, execute foreign diplomats; British forces captured imperial capital in the fall of 1860. British consider burning down the Forbidden City. Instead, they burn the Summer Palace.
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Settlement of the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia imposes an indemnity on France and will occupy France until the debt has been paid off. By 1873m the French had paid off the indemnity and Prussian troops left France
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Bulgarian revolt against Ottomans, the Ottomans brutally crush the Bulgarians, resulting in widespread calls for humanitarian revolution throughout Europe.
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• Battle of Plevna (1877): Russia had the momentum within the war, crushing Ottoman troops; however, the war effort ground to a standstill at the Battle of Plevna. Despite winning the battle, Russia had lost her momentum. Russia was able to continue the war effort, but they had lost the desire to continue fighting on account of the Battle of Plevna. By the time the Russians reached Constantinople, they desire peace as opposed to conquest.
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Russian force Ottomans to accept a complete reorganization of the Balkans. Ottomans must recognize the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania. Russia gains territory along the Danu River. Ottomans agree to create a greater Bulgarian state, including all those who are ethnically Bulgarian.
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The map that Russia had drawn within the Balkans was abandoned. The countries promised independence under San Stefano were still given independence; Bulgaria was given autonomy (self-Government) Britain was given Cyprus and France was given permission to take over Tunisia to counterbalance the gains Russia had made from possible client states in the Balkans. Austria was given security. Prussia did not receive anything; however, Bismarck felt accomplished in that he had created stability.
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Stresemann was a nationalist; however, he desired for the international system established by Versailles to work. His plan was to use diplomacy to cooperate with the world powers in order to gain leverage to decrease the overall burden imposed on Germany.
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Austria-Prussia. A security alliance aimed against Russia. Bismarck’s desire was to deter the Russians from trying anything by throwing Prussian weight behind the Austrians. The Austrians, in turn, became more dependent upon Germany, therefore restraining Austria.
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Austria, Russia, and Germany enter into an alliance. They agree to remain neutral if another League member was attacked by France or Britain.
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Secret Treaty between Russia and Germany, promise of neutrality. In 1890, the treaty came up for renewal. Wilhelm decided that the secret agreement represented everythign that was wrong with Bismarck’s diplomacy. Germans refused to renew treaty.
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The agreement stated that if Germany were to attack one of the countries, the other nation would attack Germany.
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Conflict between Japan and China following Japanese invasion of China.
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Establishes the United States as a major world player.
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Boer adopt guerilla tactics, British respond by using concentration camps. It takes three years for the British to defeat the Boer. This embarrasses the British and leads to British fear about their power in the world.
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Japanese defeat Russians.
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Willhelm sailed to Morroco and landed in Tangier. There he declared that he recognized Morroco as an independent country. This angered France as Morroco was a French colonial possession
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Wilhelm had hoped to humiliate the French, believing that British would align with the Germans. In the end, every nation except Austria agreed with the French. This came as a blow to Germany as it demonstrated the lack of international status that Germany held. Despite its expanding economy and strong military, the Germans were not particularly respected by the international system. This perception contributed to a German feeling of inferiority.
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Turkish nationalist attempt to industrialize and democratize, remove the Sultan.
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French intervene to suppress a rebellion against the Sultan. The French asserted that they had the rights of a protectorate, claiming that intervention was meant to protect French and European economic relations. The Germans argued that the Algeciras Conference was violated by the French; they intervene, no one supports them.
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Italy promised territory for flighting with the Allies in WWI,
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Wilson believed that inclusive and democratic principles should define the international system. His analysis of the war differed from the other powers. He thought that the concept of the balance of power was at odds with a stable international system. Nationalism, he thought, had generated conflict without generated democratic or liberal institutions. Wilson also critiqued the secret diplomacy.Wilsonianism: international rule of laws, international institutions, collective security.
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Assinated by Gavrilo Princip
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. Previously Chancellor of the Exchecker (sort of like Treasury Secretary). A populist, Lloyd George campaigned on a policy of squeezing the Germans. As such, Lloyd George arrived in Germany with the intention of punishing the Germans; however, he simultaneously wished to maintain the balance of power.
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Tsar abdicates, realizing the political legitimacy of the monarchy was so broken that he could no longer remain in power. Tsar is replaced by a group of liberal politicians led by Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) Prime Minister July-Nov 1917. Not a radical. He declares the end of the Monarchy and Russia as a republic. Kerensky vows to keep fighting, denouncing imperialism and expansionism.
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Reputation for a fiery temper and previously a writer for radical newspapers. He had been involved in French political life for 50 years. Clémenceau desired to destroy Germany, to remove any remain of Germany power, as this was the only to maintain French stability.
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Orlando desired for the Treaty of London to be upheld (the promise on the part of the French and British to provide territory to the Italians on the condition that they fight for the Allied cause).
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In October 1917, Kerensky government launches an offensive against the Germans. It was a complete disaster, leading to an almost complete collapse of the German government and military. Lenin stages a coup to overthrow Kerensky and to establish a dictatorship. Bolsheviks promise “Peace and Bread”—an end to the war and the provision of food. Popular support fro the revolution thanks to the “Peace and Bread” platform.
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Gave Germany 1/3 of Russian pre-war population, enormous amounts of industrial capital, large territorial gains (Poland, Ukraine).
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Expansion of Turkish Borders
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Constraints on the Germany Military, Rhineland demilitarized, War Guilt Clause, Germany forced to sign a blank check, Wilsonian Self-Determination, League of Nations.
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French government sent troops in and occupied the Ruhr in Germany in order to seize the means of production to gain access to steel and coal. Huge economic burden of occupation on France, results in the collapse of the French currency.
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Following an unsuccessful plebiscite, the issue of who would control Upper-Silesia (Germany or Poland) was decided by the League of Nations. Despite conflict between the French and British, the League solved the issues, splitting the territory down the middle.
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• Four-Power Treaty (Great Britain, France, US, Japan): Preserve the territorial status quo in the southeast Asia. • Nine-Power Treaty (GB, France, US, Japan, China, Italy, Netherland, Portugal, Belgium): Leave China intact and allow all countries to do business freely in the Chinese Market.
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• Five-Power Treaty: Instead of specifying cuts, the Five-Power Treaty capped the naval power of GB, US, Japan, France, and Italy. For every 5 tons of capital ship power in GB, the US would be allowed 5 tons, Japan would be allowed 3 tons, France would be allowed 1.7 tons, and Italy would be allowed 1.7 tons. For British perspective, this momentary pain would hopefully decrease the chance of war. US received recognition as equal in naval power to the GB. Japan/Italy resented lower status.
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fear prompted the king to make Mussolini Prime Minister in 1922. Initially, Mussolini stays within the confines of the Prime Minister position; however, he soon assumes dictatorial power becoming Il Duce (1925-1943). Mussolini is initially popular as dictator.
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Nazi failed coup led by Adolf Hitler. The Nazi logic was that they would first takeover Munich and then this would lead to a full takeover of Germany. The leaders of the Beer Hall Putsch were thrown in jail following its failures.
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Urges a reduction in the reparations burden placed on Germany and a simultaneous rehabilitation of the German economy. The result was a reduction in the total reparation burden and a flood of American capital to help the Germany economy.
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British, French, and Germans renegociate Treaty of Versailles.
French, Belgians, and Germans agreed not to attack each other. Italians and British agreed to act as guarantors of that agreement.Treaty seemed to make Germany an equal partner in the international system. Feeling of relief from the treaty, new spirit of cooperation. -
US secretary of state received an alliance proposal from France. Fearing the repercussions of denying alliance with France, Kellog proposed that the treaty expand into a worldwide treaty agreeing to never go to war again. The Kellog-Brian pact exemplifies the simultaneous optimism and illusion of the 1920s.
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Japanese troops stationed in Manchuria concocted a crisis that gave them the excuse to takeover Manchuria. Civilian government in Tokyo had no authority to regulate the Japanese military. The Japanese declared that Manchuria was an independent state and renamed the new state Manchukuo.
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o The League of Nations established the Lytton Commission to investigate the situation and to determine the facts before acting. The commission was inefficient, taking a year to generate a report and, by that time, desire to check Japanese militarism had dissipated. Japanese expansion into China continues. 1933--Japan exists the League of Nations.
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British and French would allow Mussolini to control part of Ethopia; however, the king of Ethopia would remain control over certain territories. The secret pact is leaked to the press, resulting in outrage from the French and British public.
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British and French (Czech cut out of negotiations) accept Hitler’s terms and allow for him to annex the Sudetenland. The Czechs were sold out.. During the Munich conference, Hitler had stated that the Sudetenland would be his last territorial seizure. This proved to be untrue, as within the next year Hitler demanded complete control over Czechoslovakia, threatening to bomb Prague if the Germany was not given Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovakian government capitulates.
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Despite loathing each other and being ideologically opposed, Stalin and Hitler sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact agreeing to split Poland between the Soviet Union and Germany. The Pact was especially revolting given the Soviet hatred of fascism as fascism represented the logical end of capitalism.
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This results in declarations of war from Great Britain, France, and the British Commonwealth.
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Trade aging US destroyers for the British relinquishing some naval bases.
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US aid to the British and the Soviets, vital for the Allied war effort.
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Anglo-American vision of the postwar world, outlining the objectives of both nations. The United States, in issuing a manifesto on the shape of the postwar world even prior to becoming involved in the war, represents an attempt to fix for the mistakes of Wilson. FDR was able to gain the support of congress and the Republican Party.
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Japanese suffer enormous losses, largely due to American air carriers
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German army attempting to take Stalingrad, Soviets determined to maintain control. Causing upwards of 2 million casualties, the Battle of Stalingrad had the result of the soviet forces surrounding the German army and cutting off their supply routes, allowing for the soviets to push back against the Germans. The Soviet victory was largely the result of the enormous human sacrifice.
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Roosevelt and Churchill decided against a decisive invasion Western Europe at the time despite Stailn's desire and need for aid.
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British defeat the German attempt to take Egypt, more specifically the Suez Canal. This begins the process of removing the Germans from North Africa.
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The Big Three agree to a peace conference to determine the future of Germany, agreeing to divide Germany in the interim amongst the allied powers. The allies disagreed over the structure of a postwar Europe (Stalin wanted Communism, Roosevelt/Churchill wanted democracy/capitalism). The division was initially between the Soviets, British, and Americans; however, the French were included due to Churchill’s commitment to redeveloping France. Declaration of Liberated Europe.
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The general shape of the Potsdam agreement was that Germany would remain unified, although the nation and the city of Berlin would be temporarily subdivided into four zones of occupation. The hope was that the four allied powers would work to create a new German government that would then sign a peace-settlement with the Allied powers.