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99,999 BCE
3.9 - 3 million years ago:: Australopithecus afarensis
Famous for the fossil "Lucy," this species walked upright and lived in Africa. It represents a crucial stage in the evolution of bipedalism. -
99,998 BCE
2.8 - 2.5 million years ago: Homo habilis:
The earliest species in the genus Homo, known for using stone tools. This species marked a significant leap in brain size and tool use compared to earlier hominins. -
99,997 BCE
1.9 million years ago: Homo erectus:
A key ancestor of modern humans, H. erectus was the first to spread out of Africa and is thought to have been the first to use fire and more advanced tools. Found across Africa and Asia. -
40,000 BCE
Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals):
Lived in Europe and western Asia. They coexisted with early Homo sapiens for some time and interbred with them. -
39,999 BCE
Homosapiens
Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa. By 100,000 years ago, they began spreading out of Africa, eventually populating the globe. -
Period: 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE
First Humans in the Americas
The earliest humans arrived in the Americas, likely via the Bering Land Bridge from Asia during the last Ice Age. -
Period: 10,000 BCE to 8000 BCE
Paleo-Indian Period
Early humans in the Americas engaged in hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Evidence of large mammal hunting, such as mammoths and mastodons, in regions of Mesoamerica. -
7000 BCE
Early Agriculture
The domestication of maize (corn) begins in central Mexico. Over time, agriculture expanded to include beans, squash, and chili peppers. -
5000 BCE
Semi-Sedentary Villages
Early sedentary agricultural villages begin to form as people rely increasingly on farming. -
Period: 3500 BCE to 2000 BCE
Development of Pottery
The use of pottery emerges, reflecting a shift toward more complex sedentary societies. -
Period: 2000 BCE to 1200 BCE
First Permanent Settlements
Larger villages and early ceremonial centers begin to form. Agriculture becomes the primary subsistence strategy, and society begins to stratify. -
Period: 1500 BCE to 1200 BCE
Rise of the Olmec Civilization
The Olmec, often called the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, build large ceremonial centers like San Lorenzo and La Venta. They introduce monumental stone sculptures (e.g., colossal heads) and influence later civilizations. -
Period: 1200 BCE to 400 BCE
Olmec Cultural Influence
Olmec influence spreads throughout Mesoamerica, introducing art, religion, and political organization that would impact later cultures, including the Maya and Zapotec. -
Period: 900 BCE to 400 BCE
Early Zapotec Civilization
The Zapotec begin to develop in Oaxaca, founding their capital at Monte Albán. -
800 BCE
Early Maya Settlements
Early Maya communities begin to emerge in the Yucatán Peninsula and parts of Guatemala, laying the foundation for future city-states. -
Period: 300 to 900
The Maya Classic Period
The Maya civilization reaches its peak, building large city-states such as Tikal, Palenque, and Copán. The Maya excel in mathematics, astronomy, and writing (Maya hieroglyphs), and construct impressive pyramids and temples. -
Period: 400 to 700
Zapotec Civilization at Monte Albán
Monte Albán continues to grow as a major center for the Zapotec culture. The city includes pryamids, temples, and a unique writing system. -
899
Late Mayan Period
Maya civilization continues in some areas, but many of the major city-states decline. However, cities like Chichen Itza and Mayapan in the northern Yucatán flourish during this period. -
900
Toltec Empire
The Toltec civilization emerges, centered at Tula in central Mexico. The Toltecs are known for their military prowess and influence on later cultures, including the Aztec. -
1200
Aztec Civilization
The Aztecs (Mexica) establish their capital at Tenochtitlán in 1325 CE. They create a powerful empire through conquest and tribute, controlling much of central Mexico by the early 16th century. -
1400
New Toltec Empire
Toltec successors created an empire that lasted 3 centuries until the 15th century -
1492
1492: Columbus Arrives in the Americas
Christopher Columbus, sailing under the Spanish flag, lands in the Caribbean, marking the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas. -
1492
1494: Treaty of Tordesillas
Spain and Portugal divide the New World along a demarcation line, giving Spain control over much of the Americas, setting the stage for future conquests. -
1511
1511: Spanish Conquest of Cuba
Diego Velázquez leads the conquest of Cuba, establishing Spanish control over the island and setting up a base for further exploration. -
1518
1517-1518: Early Expeditions to Mexico
1517: Francisco Hernández de Córdoba explores the Yucatán Peninsula, encountering Maya civilizations.
1518: Juan de Grijalva leads another expedition along the Gulf of Mexico, reporting wealthy and powerful cities. -
1519
1519: First Contact with the Aztec Empire
November: Cortés and his forces march to Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, and meet Emperor Moctezuma II. The Spanish are initially welcomed as guests. -
1519
1519: Hernán Cortés Arrives in Mexico
February: Cortés departs from Cuba with 11 ships and around 500 men, aiming to explore and conquer the Mexican mainland.
March: Cortés lands in Tabasco, where he defeats the local Maya and receives gifts, including Malinche (Doña Marina), a Nahua woman who becomes his interpreter and advisor.
August: Cortés establishes Veracruz, formally claiming the territory for Spain. -
1520
1520: Smallpox Epidemic Hits the Aztecs
A smallpox outbreak, introduced by the Spanish, devastates the Aztec population, killing large numbers, including Emperor Cuitláhuac, Moctezuma's successor. This weakens the empire significantly. -
May 2, 1520
1520: Tensions and the "Night of Sorrows"
May: Cortés leaves Tenochtitlán to confront Spanish forces sent to arrest him.
June: Pedro de Alvarado, left in charge in Tenochtitlán, orders a massacre during a religious festival, inciting a rebellion.
July 1 (La Noche Triste): Cortés and his men attempt to escape the city under attack, suffering heavy losses. -
Jan 1, 1521
1521: Formation of the Spanish-Indigenous Alliance
Cortés secures alliances with Indigenous groups, such as the Tlaxcalans, who resent Aztec dominance. Their collaboration provides critical manpower for the siege of Tenochtitlán. -
Aug 13, 1521
1521: Siege and Fall of Tenochtitlán
May: Cortés lays siege to Tenochtitlán with the help of thousands of Indigenous allies, including the Tlaxcalans.
August 13: After months of brutal fighting and disease outbreaks (smallpox), the Aztec capital falls. Emperor Cuauhtémoc is captured, marking the end of the Aztec Empire. -
1522
1522: Establishment of New Spain
Cortés is appointed Governor of New Spain, and the Spanish begin the systematic colonization and Christianization of the region. Tenochtitlán's ruins are rebuilt into Mexico City, the capital of the new colony. -
Mexican Independence
After more than a decade of struggle, Mexico finally achieved independence from Spain on September 27, 1821. The movement, which began in 1810 with Miguel Hidalgo’s "Grito de Dolores," saw years of battles, shifting alliances, and political changes. The turning point came when Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero united under the Plan of Iguala, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba. This agreement recognized Mexico as an independent nation, marking the end of Spanish colonial rule -
Texas independence
Texas gains independence from Mexico after the Battle of San Jacinto. The U.S. annexes Texas, causing tensions with Mexico. -
Invation of Mexico
The U.S. invasion of Mexico was part of the larger conflict known as the Mexican-American War. Fueled by the ideology of Manifest Destiny, the United States sought to expand its territory, leading to an armed conflict with Mexico. After two years of intense fighting, American forces captured Mexico City in 1847. Even after the war officially ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, U.S. influence and military interventions continued in Mexican affairs throughout the mid-19th century. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Signed on February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially ended the Mexican-American War. As part of the agreement, Mexico ceded nearly half of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. In exchange, the U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and assumed some of its debts. This treaty drastically reshaped the geopolitical landscape of North America, fueling tensions within Mexico and setting the stage for future conflicts. -
Defeat in War Against the U.S.
The defeat in the Mexican-American War was a devastating blow to Mexico. The loss of vast territories weakened the nation's economy and morale, while internal divisions deepened. Many Mexicans viewed the war as an unjust conflict, while others blamed their own government for mismanagement and corruption. The defeat also exposed Mexico’s military vulnerabilities, making it more susceptible to future foreign interventions, including the French invasion a few years later. -
The French Expedition
In 1862, French forces invaded, initially facing resistance at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, a victory now celebrated as Cinco de Mayo. However, the French regrouped and eventually installed Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico in 1864. Despite some local support, resistance forces led by Benito Juárez fought back, and with U.S. pressure after the Civil War, the French withdrew in 1867. Maximilian was captured and executed, restoring the Mexican Republic. -
Battle of Puebla
Benito Juarez and Ignacio Zaragoza defeat the French. -
French invation
The French take Mexico City and impose the Second Empire. -
Maximilian I.
1864 – Maximilian of Habsburg arrives in Mexico as emperor.
1867 – Defeat of the imperialists; execution of Maximilian and restoration of the Republic under Benito Juárez. -
Porfirio Díaz Takes Control of Mexico
Porfirio Díaz, a military general and political leader, seized power in 1877 after years of political instability. His rule, known as the Porfiriato, lasted for over three decades, characterized by economic modernization and authoritarian control. Díaz promoted foreign investment and industrialization, but his policies largely benefited the elite while worsening conditions for the poor. -
The Mexican Revolution Begins
The Mexican Revolution erupted in 1910 as a response to Porfirio Díaz’s long and oppressive rule. Sparked by Francisco I. Madero’s call for democracy and fair elections, the revolution quickly gained support from various social groups, including peasants and workers. Revolutionary leaders like Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa led uprisings across the country, demanding land reform and social justice. The conflict led to the overthrow of Díaz in 1911.