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There was a strong focus on religion and spirituality in Byzantine art, which featured icons in frontal, flat, and stylized forms against gold backgrounds. Paintings and mosaics were created in rich color palettes, and sculptures were not three-dimensional to prevent worship. Byzantine architects invented the pendentive and the squinch. The art prioritized symbolic meaning over realism. The frequent use of gold in mosaics and paintings symbolized heaven and divinity.
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The Hagia Sophia's most prominent feature is its large dome, made possible by the architects' use of pendentives; the corners of the dome's square base curve up into the dome and redistribute its weight. The windows at the bottom of the dome make it look like the base of the dome is hardly touching the building.
Isidore of Miletus Anthemius of Tralles for Emperor Justinian. Hagia Sophia. c. 532-537. Brick, mortar, stone, marble. Istanbul, Turkey, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia -
There was a resurgence of patronage of religious art during this period right after the end of iconoclasm. Mary, referred to as "Theotokos,” one who gives birth to Christ, sits with Jesus Christ on her lap. The gold apse represents the divine light of Heaven.
Medieval. Theotokos Mosaic from the Hagia Sophia. 867. Glass, limestone, marble. Apse, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, https://smarthistory.org/theotokos-mosaic-hagia-sophia-istanbul/ -
The Roman Church was the main patron of Romanesque art. The economic boom from pilgrimages to cities led to rapid architectural developments and grander churches that featured barrel vaults and the new ribbed vault. Since most people were illiterate, illuminated manuscripts with jewel-like colors and stylized motifs were used to teach and guide followers of Christianity. Bestiaries were medieval books of beasts, real and imaginary, that focused on animals’ religious meanings.
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Northern Gothic art was more naturalistic compared to the stylized works of the Byzantine and Romanesque periods. It emphasized verticality and elaborate detail, evident in soaring cathedrals. Uninterrupted light, representative of life as a manifestation of God, shone into churches through stained glass windows, rose windows, and stone tracery holding the stained glass.
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This painting is a fresco: it was marked into the fresh plaster and layers of paint were applied. Christ sits on a band decorated with gold foliate motifs inside a blue mandorla. His face is long, symmetrical, and adorned with a white halo. His right hand is raised in a gesture of blessing.
Medieval. Christ in Majesty apse painting at Sant Climent, Taüll. c. 1123. Pigment, plaster. National Museum of Art of Catalonia, Barcelona, https://smarthistory.org/christ-in-majesty-sant-climent-taull/ -
Jesus Christ is the most important figure in this relief according to hieratic organization. He is frontal, flat, elongated, and stares out in judgement. His hands and feet extend the mandorla, the almond shape that encloses his body and serves as a full body halo to represent his divinity.
Medieval. Last Judgment Tympanum from Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun. c. 1130–46. Stone. Saint Lazare, Autun, France, https://smarthistory.org/last-judgment-tympanum-cathedral-of-st-lazare-autun-france/ -
Notre-Dame was constructed with the use of external, arched flying buttresses that help support the weight of the stone roof and vaulting and allow for windows to bring in light. Characteristic of Gothic architecture, it emphasizes verticality. Pointed arches allowed for taller ceilings and larger windows by directing weight downward more effectively than Romanesque arches.
Medieval. Notre-Dame de Paris. c. 1163–1250. Limestone, wood. Paris, France, https://smarthistory.org/notre-dame-fire/ -
The city-state of Florence in the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries was developing, and Florence’s population doubled in size. Church and state were not separate, and public funds were used to erect religious centers. Guilds were in charge of decorating public spaces. Artists depicted stories from the Bible, moving toward more realistic and emotional storytelling, and experimented with perspective to create a greater sense of spatial depth.
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Christ has taut skin, bleeding wounds, and exposed ribs, showing that he suffered in life as he did in death. Mary looks confused and angry. This depiction may have allowed viewers to feel a sense of connection, which may have been less common with earlier scenes of the crucifixion in which Christ is portrayed as divine and immune to human suffering.
Middle Ages. Röttgen Pietà. c. 1300-25. Painted wood. LVR-LandesMuseum Bonn, Germany, https://smarthistory.org/roettgen-pieta/ -
Giotto used chiaroscuro to create the illusion of greater volume and a sense of sculptural relief in his depiction of the Virgin and Child, and the illusion of dimension through the architecture of the throne. The painting retains traditional elements like the gold leaf and the hierarchy of scale.
Giotto di Bondone. Ognissanti Madonna and Child Enthroned. c. 1306-1310. Tempera paint, gold, snd panel. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, https://smarthistory.org/giotto-the-ognissanti-madonna/ -
This altarpiece features extensive decorative surfaces, sinuous lines, and elongated figures. It combines the Byzantine use of gilded backgrounds with a newer, more emotive style. Unlike traditional works, it is designed to be viewed from both sides.
Duccio. Maestà from Siena Cathedra. c. 1308-11. Tempera paint, gold, and panel. Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena, https://www.italianartsociety.org/2015/06/duccios-maesta-was-placed-on-the-high-altar-of-siena-cathedral-on-9-june-1311/