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1839
Start of the First Opium War: Tensions between Britain and China escalate after Chinese officials, led by Commissioner Lin Zexu, confiscate and destroy large quantities of British opium in Canton (Guangzhou).
Significance: This marked the beginning of military conflict over Britain’s opium trade and China's sovereignty. -
1840
British Naval Campaign Begins: The British deploy their advanced navy to attack Chinese coastal cities and ports.
Significance: Highlights the technological and military superiority of Britain over Qing China. -
1842
Treaty of Nanking Signed: The First Opium War ends with the Treaty of Nanking. China cedes Hong Kong to Britain, opens five treaty ports for trade, and pays reparations.
Significance: This was the first of the "Unequal Treaties," undermining Chinese sovereignty and beginning significant Western influence in China. -
1856
Start of the Second Opium War: Tensions reignite after the Arrow Incident, where Chinese officials board a British-registered ship. Britain and France ally to launch military campaigns against China.
Significance: The conflict further weakens Qing China and expands Western demands for trade and privileges. -
1858
Treaties of Tianjin: Preliminary treaties are signed, granting foreign powers more access to Chinese markets and legalizing opium trade. However, hostilities resume when China resists implementing the terms.
Significance: Demonstrates ongoing resistance from the Qing government despite military defeats. -
1860
Convention of Peking: The war ends after British and French forces capture Beijing and loot the Summer Palace. The Convention of Peking ratifies the Treaties of Tianjin, cedes more territory, and expands foreign rights in China.
Significance: Marks another blow to China’s sovereignty, deepening foreign dominance in its internal affairs.