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476
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
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493
Theodoric the Great establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy
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527
Justinian I ascends as Byzantine Emperor, later initiating major legal and architectural reforms
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711
The Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula begins
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732
Battle of Tours – Charles Martel halts the northward advance of Islamic forces
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800
Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor by Pope Leo III, uniting much of Western Europe
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843
Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons
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962
Otto I is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, reinforcing the idea of a revived Western Empire
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1054
The Great Schism formally splits Christianity into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox branches
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1066
Norman Conquest of England – William the Conqueror defeats Harold II at Hastings
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1095
Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
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1099
Crusaders capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade
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1122
Concordat of Worms resolves the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor
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1147
Launch of the Second Crusade
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1187
Battle of Hattin – Saladin defeats Crusader forces and recaptures Jerusalem
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1190
Beginning of the Third Crusade, led by figures such as Richard the Lionheart
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1215
Signing of the Magna Carta in England, laying foundations for constitutional governance
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1229
End of the Albigensian Crusade with the Treaty of Paris, curbing heresy in southern France
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1241
Mongol forces invade Eastern Europe (e.g., Battle of Legnica), affecting European political dynamics
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1265
Simon de Montfort’s Parliament in England becomes an early model of representative government
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1274
Second Council of Lyons discusses Church reforms and attempts at reuniting Eastern and Western Christianity
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1302
Pope Boniface VIII issues the papal bull Unam Sanctam, asserting papal supremacy
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1315
The Great Famine begins in Europe, severely impacting population and society
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1347
Outbreak of the Black Death in Europe, drastically reducing the population
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1378
Beginning of the Western Schism, splitting the Catholic Church with rival popes
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1415
Execution of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance, sparking early reformist movements
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1417
The Western Schism comes to an end with the election of a single pope
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1453
Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire
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1455
Gutenberg prints the first Bible, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge with movable type
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1492
Christopher Columbus’s voyage leads to the European discovery of the Americas
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1494
Treaty of Tordesillas divides the New World between Spain and Portugal
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1517
Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation
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1521
The Diet of Worms condemns Martin Luther’s teachings
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1527
Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V, symbolizing the decline of papal political power
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1534
Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy establishes the Church of England
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1543
Copernicus publishes On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, marking a shift in scientific thought
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1545
The Council of Trent commences, launching the Counter-Reformation within the Catholic Church
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1555
The Peace of Augsburg establishes the principle of cuius regio, eius religio in the Holy Roman Empire
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The Spanish Armada is defeated by England, altering the balance of naval power in Europe
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The Defenestration of Prague sparks the Thirty Years’ War across Central Europe
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The English Civil War begins, leading to significant shifts in power and governance
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The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years’ War and lays the groundwork for modern state sovereignty
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The Glorious Revolution in England establishes a constitutional monarchy
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The English Bill of Rights is enacted, reinforcing parliamentary power and individual rights
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The Acts of Union unite England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of Spanish Succession, reshaping the balance of power in Europe
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Death of Louis XIV marks the end of an era of absolute monarchy in France
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The Seven Years’ War begins, a global conflict that reconfigures colonial empires
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The Battle of the Plains of Abraham decisively influences the fate of New France in North America
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The approximate beginning of the Industrial Revolution, heralding vast economic and social changes
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The American Revolutionary War begins
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The American Declaration of Independence is adopted. Adam Smith publishes his magnum opus ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’
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The Treaty of Paris ends the American Revolutionary War
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The French Revolution begins, radically transforming French society and politics
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The French National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
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Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire
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Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French
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The Battle of Austerlitz results in a decisive Napoleonic victory
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The British Parliament passes the Slave Trade Act, abolishing the slave trade in the British Empire
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The Mexican War of Independence begins against Spanish colonial rule
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Napoleon invades Russia, a campaign that ultimately weakens his army
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Napoleon abdicates, and the Congress of Vienna convenes to redraw the map of Europe
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The Battle of Waterloo marks Napoleon’s final defeat and ends the Napoleonic Wars
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The Greek War of Independence begins; simultaneously, the Mexican War of Independence concludes.
