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Allies
By 1907 there were two major defense alliances in Europe.
The Triple Entente, later known as the Allies -
Central Powers
Germany and Austria-Hungary, together with the Ottoman Empire—an empire of
mostly Middle Eastern lands controlled by the Turks—were later known as the
Central Powers -
Trench warfare
Where armies fought for mere yards of ground, continued for over
three years. Elsewhere, the fighting was just as devastating and inconclusive. -
1914 Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to
the Austrian throne, visited the Bosnian capital Sarajevo. As
the royal entourage drove through the city, Serbian nationalist
Gavrilo Princip stepped from the crowd and shot the
Archduke and his wife Sophie. Princip was a member of the
Black Hand, an organization promoting Serbian nationalism.
The assassinations touched off a diplomatic crisis. -
Schlieffen Plan
invaded Belgium, following
a strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan. This plan called
for a holding action against Russia, combined with a quick
drive through Belgium to Paris; after France had fallen, the
two German armies would defeat Russia. -
Bolshevik Revolution
Russian troops advanced
quickly into German territory but
were turned back at the Battle
of Tannenberg,
endured defeats and continued
to retreat. By the end of 1915
they had suffered about 2.5 million
casualties >>
caused massive bread shortages
in Russia.
Revolutionaries ousted the czar
in March 1917, established
a provisional government and overthrew the
provisional government. They set
up a Communist state and sought
peace with the Central Powers. -
Germany blockades the North Sea
Germany responded to the British
blockade with a counterblockade by U-boats. Any British or Allied ship found in the
waters around Britain would be sunk—and it would not always be possible to
warn crews and passengers of an attack.
One of the worst disasters occurred on May 7, 1915, when a U-boat sank the
British liner Lusitania off the southern coast of Ireland. Of the
1,198 persons lost, 128 were Americans.
Americans became outraged with Germany because of the loss of life. -
Sinking of the British Liner Lusitania
One of the worst disasters occurred when a U-boat sank the
British liner Lusitania off the southern coast of Ireland. Of the
1,198 persons lost, 128 were Americans. The Germans defended their action on
the grounds that the liner carried ammunition. Despite Germany’s explanation,
Americans became outraged with Germany because of the loss of life. American
public opinion turned against Germany and the Central Powers. -
Sinking of British liner Arabic
in August 1915, a U-boat
sank another British liner, the Arabic, drowning two Americans. Again the United
States protested, and this time Germany agreed not to sink any more passenger
ships. -
American Expeditionary Force and General John J. Pershing
American infantrymen were
nicknamed doughboys, possibly because of the white belts
they wore, which they cleaned with pipe clay, or “dough.”
Most doughboys had never ventured far from the farms or
small towns where they lived, and the sophisticated sights
and sounds of Paris made a vivid impression. However,
doughboys were also shocked by the unexpected horrors of
the battlefield and astonished by the new weapons and tactics
of modern warfare. -
Sinking of French Passenger liner Sussex
But in March 1916 Germany broke its promise and torpedoed an unarmed
French passenger steamer, the Sussex. The Sussex sank, and about 80 passengers,
including Americans, were killed or injured. Once again the United States warned
that it would break off diplomatic relations unless Germany changed its tactics. -
Battle of the Somme
During the First Battle of the Somme—
which lasted until mid-November—the British suffered
60,000 casualties the first day alone. Final casualties totaled about 1.2 million,
yet only about seven miles of ground changed hands. -
Wilson's "Peace without Victory" Speech
After the election, Wilson tried to mediate between the warring alliances. The
attempt failed. In a speech before the Senate in January 1917, the president called
for “a peace without victory. . . . a peace between equals,” in which neither side
would impose harsh terms on the other. Wilson hoped that all nations would join
in a “league for peace” that would work to extend democracy, maintain freedom of
the seas, and reduce armaments. -
Convoy System
Where a heavy guard of destroyers
escorted merchant ships back and forth across the Atlantic in groups. By fall of
1917, shipping losses had been cut
in half. -
War Industries Board
The main regulatory body was the War
Industries Board (WIB). It was established in 1917 and reorganized in 1918
under the leadership of Bernard M. Baruch (bE-rLkP), a prosperous businessman.
The board encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to
increase efficiency. It also urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products—for
instance, by making only 5 colors of typewriter ribbons instead of 150.
The WIB set production quotas and allocated raw materials. -
Zimmermann note
The overt acts came. First was the
Zimmermann note, a telegram from
the German foreign minister to the
German ambassador in Mexico that was
intercepted by British agents. The
telegram proposed an alliance between
Mexico and Germany and promised
that if war with the United States broke
out, Germany would support Mexico in
recovering “lost territory in Texas, New
Mexico, and Arizona.” Next came the
sinking of four unarmed American merchant
ships, with a loss of 36 lives. -
Second Battle of the Marne
When Russia pulled out of the war in 1917, the Germans shifted their armies from
the eastern front to the western front in France. By May they were within 50 miles
of Paris. The Americans arrived just in time to help stop the German advance at
Cantigny in France. Several weeks later, U.S. troops played a major role in throwing
back German attacks at Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood. In July and
August, they helped win the Second Battle of the Marne. -
Anti-German sentiment in America
Finally, in a burst of anti-German fervor, Americans changed the name of
German measles to “liberty measles.” Hamburger—named after the German city
of Hamburg—became “Salisbury steak” or “liberty sandwich,” depending on
whether you were buying it in a store or eating it in a restaurant. Sauerkraut was
renamed “liberty cabbage,” and dachshunds turned into “liberty pups.” -
Selective Service Act of 1917
To meet the government’s need for more
fighting power, Congress passed the Selective Service Act. The act required men to register with the government
in order to be randomly selected for military service. By the end
of 1918, 24 million men had registered under the act. -
Espionage & Sedition Acts
Congress passed the
Espionage Act, and in May 1918 it passed the Sedition Act. Under the Espionage
and Sedition Acts a person could be fined up to $10,000 and sentenced to 20
years in jail for interfering with the war effort or for saying anything disloyal, profane,
or abusive about the government or the war effort. -
Wilson's Fourteen Points
Even before the war was over, Wilson
presented his plan for world peace. On January 18, 1918, he
delivered his now famous Fourteen Points speech before
Congress. The points were divided into three groups. The
first five points were issues that Wilson believed had to be
addressed to prevent another war -
369th Infantry Regiment
About 400,000 African Americans served in the armed
forces. More than half of them served in France. African
American soldiers served in segregated units and were excluded
from the navy and marines. Most African Americans were
assigned to noncombat duties, although there were exceptions.
The all-black 369th Infantry Regiment saw more continuous duty on the front
lines than any other American regiment. -
Shell shock. trench foot, and trench mouth
Constant bombardments and other experiences
often led to battle fatigue and “shell shock,” a term coined during World
War I to describe a complete emotional collapse from which many never recovered.
Physical problems included a disease called trench foot, caused by standing
in cold wet trenches for long periods of time without changing into dry socks
or boot. A painful infection of the gums and throat,
called trench mouth, was also common among the soldiers. -
Conscientious objector
During the fighting in the Meuse-Argonne
area, one of America’s greatest war heroes, Alvin York, became famous.
A redheaded mountaineer and blacksmith from Tennessee, York sought
exemption as a conscientious objector, a person who opposes warfare
on moral grounds, pointing out that the Bible says, “Thou shalt not kill.” -
National War Labor Board
To deal with disputes between management and labor, President Wilson established
the National War Labor Board in 1918. Workers who refused to obey board
decisions could lose their draft
exemptions. “Work or fight,” the
board told them. However, the
board also worked to improve factory
conditions. It pushed for an
eight-hour workday, promoted
safety inspections, and enforced
the child labor ban. -
Food Administration
To
help produce and conserve food,
Wilson set up the Food Administration
under Herbert Hoover.
Instead of rationing food, he
called on people to follow the
“gospel of the clean plate.” He
declared one day a week “meatless,”
another “sweetless,” two
days “wheatless,” and two other
days “porkless.” Restaurants
removed sugar bowls from the
table and served bread only after
the first course. -
Raising money for the war
The United States spent about $35.5 billion on the war effort.
The government raised about one-third of this amount through taxes, including
a progressive income tax (which taxed high incomes at a higher rate than low
incomes), a war-profits tax, and higher excise taxes on tobacco, liquor, and luxury
goods. It raised the rest through public borrowing by selling “Liberty Loan” and
“Victory Loan” bonds. -
Committee on Public Information and the "four minute men"
Creel persuaded the nation’s artists and advertising agencies to create thousands
of paintings, posters, cartoons, and sculptures promoting the war. He
recruited some 75,000 men to serve as “Four-Minute Men,” who spoke about
everything relating to the war: the draft, rationing, bond drives, victory gardens,
and topics such as “Why We Are Fighting” and “The Meaning of America.” -
Eugene V. Debs
The Espionage and Sedition Acts targeted socialists and labor leaders.
Eugene V. Debs was handed a ten-year prison sentence for speaking out
against the war and the draft. The anarchist Emma Goldman received a
two-year prison sentence and a $10,000 fine for organizing the No
Conscription League. -
Emma Goldman
The anarchist Emma Goldman received a
two-year prison sentence and a $10,000 fine for organizing the No
Conscription League. When she left jail, the authorities deported her to
Russia. “Big Bill” Haywood and other leaders of the Industrial Workers of
the World (IWW) were accused of sabotaging the war effort because they
urged workers to strike for better conditions and higher pay. -
Victor Burger
The House of Representatives refused to seat Victor
Berger, a socialist congressman from Wisconsin, because of his antiwar views.
Columbia University fired a distinguished psychologist because he opposed the
war. A colleague who supported the war thereupon resigned in protest, saying,
“If we have to suppress everything we don’t like to hear, this country is resting
on a pretty wobbly basis.” -
Big Bill Haywood and the IWW
“Big Bill” Haywood and other leaders of the Industrial Workers of
the World (IWW) were accused of sabotaging the war effort because they
urged workers to strike for better conditions and higher pay. Haywood
was sentenced to a long prison term. (He later skipped bail and fled to
Russia.) Under such federal pressure, the IWW faded away. -
Austria-Hungary surrenders to the Allies
AustriaHungary
surrendered to the Allies. That same day, German sailors
mutinied against government authority. The mutiny spread quickly.
Everywhere in Germany, groups of soldiers and workers organized revolutionary
councils. On November 9, socialist leaders in the capital,
Berlin, established a German republic. The kaiser gave up the throne. -
Establishment of the German Republic
Everywhere in Germany, groups of soldiers and workers organized revolutionary
councils. On November 9, socialist leaders in the capital,
Berlin, established a German republic. The kaiser gave up the throne. -
Cease-fire and armistice
Although there were no Allied soldiers on German territory and no truly
decisive battle had been fought, the Germans were too exhausted to continue
fighting. So at the eleventh hour, on the eleventh day, in the eleventh month
of 1918, Germany agreed to a cease-fire and signed the armistice, or truce,
that ended the war. -
Agreements made in the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles established
nine new nations—including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia—and shifted
the boundaries of other nations. It carved five areas out of the Ottoman Empire
and gave them to France and Great Britain as mandates, or temporary colonies.
Those two Allies were to administer their respective mandates until the areas were
ready for self-rule and then independence. -
Reparations and the War Guilt Clause
Humiliated Germany and forced them to admit sole responsibility for starting World War I. Although
German militarism had played a major role in igniting the war, other European
nations had been guilty of provoking diplomatic crises before the war.
Furthermore, there was no way Germany could pay the huge financial
reparations. Germany was stripped of its colonial possessions in the Pacific, which
might have helped it pay its reparations bill.
