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Construction started in 1859 and in 1882 Britain took over it from France -
Prussia crushes France and signs the Treaty of Frankfurt conceding Alsace and Lorraine and having to pay an indemnity to Prussia. It was in Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors were Germany was Unified on the 30th of Jan.
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Extreme counter-revolutionary
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Russia, Germany, Austria
In an attempt to gain allies to protect itself from French revenge, Bismarck proposed its creation.
Russia and Austria both were interested in this alliance with Germany as they sought to be backed up in their individual bids for the Balkans.
Balkans became a power vacuum due to the collapse of the Ottoman empire. For Russia the control of western Black sea granted access to the mediterranean for Austria it was potential dissent from Slavs currently in Austria. -
Revolt against Turkish control in Bosnia Herzegovina, which spread to Bulgaria Serbia and Montenegro
Turks defeated the serbs and stabilised the situation
Austria allowed Russia to drive out the Turks as long as it did not set up a Pro-russian Bulgaria
Jan 1978, the Turks were forced to agree to a peace that set up a Pro- Russian government leading to a major conflict between Austria and Russia
War between them would mean France could support them in exchange of revising the Treaty of Frankfurt -
Bismarck mediated a resolution to the eastern crisis
Congress resolved:
- Bulgaria to be broken into three, largest of these sections was the core state of Bulgaria (Turkish control) (self-governing prinicipality). Russians to control its administration for nine months until new gov. set up.
- Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained complete independence
- Austria given right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina but not to annex it -
Berlin Congress worsens relations between Germany&Russia,leading to the collapse of the Dreikaiserbund,and strengthens German view that it could not allow Austrian defeat (to Russia) as this would comprise its security Terms
Should one power be attacked by Russia the other should come in aid
If attacked by any other power,its ally would adopt a neutral/friendly attitude
To last 5 years but could be renewed
To be kept secret but would be leaked to the Tsar to disuade him from starting a war -
European powers sought to expand their empires in Africa as part of 'New Imperialism' and due to the abundant raw materials that could be extracted from more in-land countries. Ended in 1914 -
Britain assured it would be out as soon as order was restored but ultimately this wasn't the case. Germany used this as way to create division between Britain and France by encouraging France to look to expand its colonial empire in Africa (in so doing creating tension between it and Britain) in compensation for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, which would distract France from looking for revenge and open up the possibility of co-operation outside of Europe. -
Russia wanted to close of the straights to the British navy and reluctantly and under German pressure Vienna agreed (Disraeli lost the 1880 elections and so there wasn't much hope of Britain supporting Austria against Russia)
Terms:
Straits closed to all nations. (Russia💪)
Austria allows reunification of Bulgaria, with russia agreeing for annexation of B-H in future
Powers to remain neutral if ally attacked by fourth power
No territorial changes without consent from all powers
To last 3 years -
French occupation of Tuins in '81 (italians regarded as their own sphere of interest) caused Italy to propose an alliance with Austria and Otto joined in.
Terms:
Both Central power committed to helping Italy if France attacked them
Italy would help if they were attacked by Russia or France If war broke out Austria wouldn't have to guard their backs
And defensive alliances against Russia were set up between Austria&Germany and Serbia (June 1982) and Romania (1983)
Dreikaiserbund renewed in 1884 -
In the following year France and Germany were able to override Britihs objections to calling an international conference in Berlin to decide on the future of a crucial set of land in Central Africa resulting in Franco-German relations improving
This was short-lived, however, as a new nationalist french government took over in 1885, who had General Boulanger as its Minister for War. Strengthening Franco-Russian relations poised too a threat to Germany -
The Dreikaiserbund went out the window and war was brewing. This would be catastrophic for Germany as Boulanger was waiting to wage war of revenge on Germany so in order to restrain these 'two savage dogs' he strengthened Austria while reassuring russia of Germany's peaceful intentions with the signing of the Mediterranean Agreement and the Reinsurance treaty. -
Bismarck aimed to deter Russia advance into the Balkans by encouraging Italy,A-H and Britain to negotiate the agreement, maintaining the Status quo in the Mediterranean Aegean and Adriatic seas. In hopes that they would stand up to the Tsar and convince him that only through negotiations in Berlin could an agreement be reached over Bulgaria -
Terms:
Both powers to remain neutral in a war fought against a 3rd power unless Ger attacked Fr, Rus or Aus
Ger recognised the rights 'historically acquired" by Russia in the Balkans, particularly in Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia
Turkey was not to open the straights to the navy of a power hostile to Russia (Britain) if the straights were opened it would be regarded as a hostile act
Bismarck had effectively played both sides by supporting Russia and Austria at the same time -
- Strongest economy in Europe
- Most formidable army, had defeated France in 1870-71
- From 1890 followed the foreign policy of 'Weltpolitik', which aimed at acquiring colonies in Africa as it felt excluded from global power, fearing imperial powers F,B In WWI when faced with defeat on the naval side and the loss of its few colonies Germany sought to established a german controlled central Europe (Mitteleuropa) to compensate for this, taking as much of western russia as Hitler would later
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- Unified in same decade as Germany
- Militarily and economically one of the weakest European powers
- Failed to annex Abyssinia being defeated at Adowa
- Italian foreign policy up until 1943 was opportunistic
- In May 1915 Treaty of London promises territory in North Africa and along the Dalmatian coast to join Allies
- Allies don't honour their promise, the 'mutilated victor' of 1918 inevitably led to the rise of fascism
- May 1939 Pact of steel with Ger, declares war 1940
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- Defeated by Prussia in 1871
- Overtaken economically by Germany and Britain
- Large North African empire which compensated for the small coal deposits and industrial base
- Alliance with Russia in 1894. Its survival depended on its ability to contain Germany by creating a strong alliance system. To strengthen this system the French negotiated the 1904 colonial agreement and entente with London.
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Britain was an empire in decline. Its monopoly on world trade was beginning to cripple as Italy, Russia, France, Germany were beginning to play a more important role in the world stage, moving places like China
Its control of the seas was threatened by Germany's increasing fleet and it was being economically overtaken by Germany and the USA
By the 1900s, Britain attempted to retain its position by a policy of appeasement with the colonial agreements of 1904, 1907 (France, Russia respectively). -
Population double size of Germany, and a rapidly developing economy
Lots of domestic instability (1905)
1917 revolution and Red Army wins in 1920 Civil War
USSR defeated in Poland in 1920
The creation of the Polish state which included much of the Ukraine ensure the USSR was physically cut off from central europe -
1867 defeated by Prussia Austria becomes two states Austria and Hungary shared a common crown and operated a joint foreign policy
Hungarians strengthened anti-russian tendency of Austrian foreign policy as they feared the impact of Russia's sympathy for the Balkan Slavs on their own large Slav population. The empire felt threatened by the emergence of a strong independent serbia, which aimed to liberate the serbs in the Austrian province of Bosnia (backed by russia). -
By 1914 the Turkish empire was in much later stage of decay than the Austrian empire. 1908 the Young Turk Movement, in a desperate attempt to prevent the crumbling of the Turkish empire, seized power and began the process of modernising Turkey. Turkey was then drawn increasingly into the German orbit. In 1913 the German government was invited to send a military mission to Constantinople to help modernise and re-equip the Turkish army, and in Oct 1914 it declared war on Britain and France. -
3rd largest navy in the world by 1914 to prevent German supremacy of the seas
1898 US seized Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and the Philippines and Hawaii in the Far east by Spain.
Still isolationist but was economically involved in Europe and the Far east and therefore couldn't avoid becoming involved in world affairs -
In 1858 Japan had initially relied on western powers but it modernised quickly and by 1899 was an economically independent power
lacking the strength to operate in isolation and foreseeing the possible conflict with Russia over Manchuria, Japan negotiated an alliance with Britain in 1902 leading to russian defeat in 1905, strengthening its position in both southern Manchuria and Korea
Greater Asia Co-prosperity sphere- territory exploited by japan, its aim was to create a self-sufficient bloc -
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Tirpitz (german admiral build the german navy before WW1) introduced the First Fleet Act, for the reorganization of Germany’s sea power. This law provided for an active navy consisting of 1 flagship, 16 battleships, 8 armoured coastal ships, and a force of 9 large and 26 small cruisers to be ready by 1904.
Followed by further laws in 1900, 1906, 1908, 1912
all committed germany to building a navy competitive with Royal Navy -
Entry into service 1906
Admiral Sir 'Jackie' Fisher, First Sea Lord of the Board of Admiralty is credited as its father
First battle ship to have a uniform main battery first also to be powered by steam turbines making her the fastest battleship in the world
Sparked the naval arms race
Japan and USA also implemented similar designs around 1906 (Satsuma, South Carolina-class battleships)
Spec:
5x twin 12 inch (305mm) guns
speed of 21 knots using 2 steam turbine engines -
Pact of no aggression & regulation of colonial expansion in Africa between France and Britain which merely meant Egypt was to be under Britain's sphere of influence and Morocco under France's -
Ended with Japanese victory and strengthened control of southern Manchuria and Korea
Battle of the Yellow sea 1904 Aug 10th
Battle of Tsushima 1905 May 27th-28th -
Political instability in Morocco worried France and various agreement with itally were reached by which France would take over Morocco (1900&1901). In 1904 Fr&Br agreed Morocco would come under French control in exchange for France leaving egypt
Germany was unaware of this
Germany wanted its time in the sun and considered it extremely important for Morocco to remain independent as a statement to Br&Fr by sending the Kaiser on a visit to Tangier the capital, where he expressed his interest. -
He rode through the streets of Tangier on a white horse, a display of support for the Sultan
He met at the German embassy with ambassadors from Fr&Br&Mor to assure them of his support of the Sultan and that Germany would protect its independence
Whilst France wasn't ready to go to war over morocco it cancelled all military leave, just in case
Britain was afraid of Germany setting up a naval base which could potentially challenge its naval dominance -
Final agreement
France was to have a controlling interest in Moroccan affairs but all countries were free to trade with it. Any further action in morocco was to be agree by all signees.
As a result tensions in Europe worsened with Germany being publicly humiliated and the Entente cordiale showing a strong bond with Britain supporting France, leading to the second Moroccan crisis -
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This paired with Russia focusing on the Far east led to an agreement between Russia and Austria whereby nothing in The Balkans was to be touched. Russian defeat in the Far east leading to turmoil at home upset this balance of power as Austria saw its opportunity to act against an evermore aggressive Serbia - 1903 pro-austrian Serbian king Alexander Obrenovich assassinated and replaced by Peter of rival Karageorgevich dynasty who followed a deeply anti-Austrian policy seeking support from russia -
and Austria would annex Bosnia pending agreement in a European conference (this wasn't put on paper)
Austria went ahead and annexed it causing outrage in Europe specially Serb&Rus where foreign prime minister (Isvolsky) was heavily criticised. He then called a european conference, however, Aus fearing a reprise of the Moroccan crisis were Aus&Ger were outvoted, vetoed the proposal
Fr was negotiating an economic agreement with Ger over Morocco and wouldn't support russia in a war over Bosnia -
Russia's relationship with Germany and Austria was deeply damaged and Russia and Serbia were brought closer together making co.operation in the Balkans much more difficult -
Russian plan developed by Yuri Danilov to deploy regiments to Prussia if Germany went to war
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French military plan if war broke out
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Germany saw this as France wanting to occupy Morocco even suggesting France had encouraged the rebel uprising (Breaching the Algeciras agreement) and as a result on the 1st July it sent a gunboat (SMS Panther) to the port of Agadir also alleging it was there to protect the interest of german people
France sent in more troops in response and Br had no choice but to support it given Germany setting up a naval base represented a huge threat -
For land in Congo (French colony)
The crisis solidified alliances (Entente Cordiale) and pulled Fr&Br father away from Germany
The entente was further strengthened by a naval agreement in which Britain agreed to protect French northern coast from german attack in exchange for the Fr protecting British interest in the mediterranean. This allowed Br to solely concentrate it efforts in defending against Germany and ensure protection France's communications with its Northern African colonies -
Aus wanted to make it independent so as to cut off serb access to the Adriatic. Rus supported serbia and Aus concentrated troops near Russian frontier
Russia wanted to prevent Cons falling to Bulgaria as the straights were vital to its economic development
Threat of alliance system activating (Rus+Fr and Ger+Aus)
German declaration (2 Dec) of backing Aus was answered by British "won't remain neutral" statement
Bulgaria failed to take Cons and an armistice was signed on 3 Dec -
Peace conference held in London to settle territorial border in the Balkans
Turks gave up all territory in the Balkans except for a small zone around the Dardanelles&Bosphorus (satisfying Russia) and an independent Albania was set up (Austria happy) -
King of Bulgaria, Ferdinand feeling the repartitioning of borders had been unjust attacked Serbia&Greece. Supported by Turks, Greeks and Romanians the serbs quickly defeated the Bulgarians in a month. The subsequent treaty of Bucharest increased territories of Serbia,Greece,Romania, whilst Turkey did so through the Treaty of Constantinople
Serbia emerged stronger and now posed a threat to Austria being able to hold its hand against Vienna. -
Britain: 64 submarines 122 war ships 29 dreadnoughts 711,000 men
Ger: 23 submarines 85 war ships 17 dreadnoughts 2,200,000 men
France: 73 submarines 46 warships 1,250,000 men
Russia: 29 submarines 26 warships 1,200,000 men
Aus-Hun: 6 submarines 24 warships 850,000 men
Italy: 12 submarines 36 warships 750,000 men -
Vienna need: German backing in case of Russian intervention and to move quickly whilst the assassination was still fresh -
Bethmann Hollweg thought a brief punitive war against serbia could be kept localised, without involving Russia. Russia was not financially ready for war and would see it as a justified war, he thought
He hoped the rapid defeat of serbia would restore the prestige of Dual Alliance, weaken Pan Slavism and Russia , and enable Germany to use Austria's success to improve relations with the Entente powers -
Chancellor (Count Leopold Von Berchtold) was ready to surprise attack serbia but on advice of Hungarian PM (Count Stephen Tisza) he agreed to first present them with an ultimatum and declare war only if this was rejected
Ultimatum: serbia should carry out a whole series of anti-terrorist measure under Austrian officials' supervision. Effectively granting Vienna control of its security forces and enabling it to intervene in its internal affairs
It was sent to Belgrade on the 23rd July -
The response to the ultimatum was carefully drafted to cunningly appear to offer Austria everything it wanted. However, the most crucial part of the ultimatum was being rejected. They broke off relations and declared war on the 28 of July -
Russians accepted Austrian right to demand an inquiry. But they were not ready to allow Aus to take over the Balkans. On 28 July Russia mobilise military districts of Odessa, Kiev, Kazan and Moscow. 2 day later the entire army was mobilised despite the Tsars reservations and a personal appeal from the Kaiser. Tensions increase although Russian army would take 6 weeks to be ready.
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By the 28th the German general staff was already urging the gov for war preparations, Germany had to consequently act quickly. on the 31 is sent an ultimatum to russia warning that unless mobilisation was stopped within the next 12 hours Germany would fully mobilise its armed forces. It expired and Germany declared war on Russia. This would prove important when convincing the German working class that going to war was a defensive act as "Russia started first"
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However the war minister had as a precaution recalled soldiers from leave and moved some key units back from Morocco
31st July French cabinet ordered mobilisation to start on the following day. The Ger ambassador asked what France's attitude toward a Russo-German war would be, the PM answered "France will act according to its interests, really though France had no choice but to support Russia
2 Aug Ger sent Ultimatum to Bel demanding free passage, this was rejected and war declared to France. -
Cabinet same day decided to not disperse British fleet to peacetime bases
Grey also raised with cabinet the issue of the possibility Britain might declare war on Ger if France was attacked
Britain received pressure from Rus and Fra to join the war whilst Ger tried to convince it to stay neutral
Cabinet was divided on the issue, on the 29th it agreed it "can't pledge ourselves to either side"
It was the German violation of Bel 4th of Aug that enabled Grey and the War party to win over cabinet -
Throughout the critical days in July and despite the Triple Alliance, Italy refused to align itself with Ger&Aus. There was little support for Aus as it was viewed as the 'traditional enemy'; also an awareness of how vulnerable the italian coast would be to french and british naval attacks; after the war in Libya the army too needed to be re-equipped and rested. However, the Italian PM did not rule out eventually joining on either side provided sufficient territorial reward was offered