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God the Son, the second person of the Trinity incarnates in human form through the holy virgin Mary and is born in the town of Bethlehem, laid in a manger, surrounded by his parents Mary and Joseph, animals and shepherds. -
Baptised by John the Baptist with the Holy Spirit descending upon him, Jesus is driven into the wilderness and after thus begins his ministry. -
3 days after his death, Jesus overcomes death and restores his body to life. -
Herod's wife Herodias schemes to have Saint John the Baptist killed and succeeds. He is beheaded. -
Jesus having completed his earthly ministry ascends to Heaven to be seated at the right hand of God the Father for all eternity. -
After being betrayed by one of his closest disciples Judas Iscariot, Jesus of Nazareth is arrested by Roman authorities and brought before High Priest Caiaphas, Tetrarch Herod Antipas and finally condemned by Pontius Pilate to be crucified until death. Jesus is beaten, whipped, mocked and forced to carry his cross until he is nailed to it. After 3 hours he dies. With his death, the human race is saved. -
Saint Stephen is stoned by Jewish authorities for his preaching making him the first Christian martyr. -
Saint James the Greater is the first of the 12 Disciples to die, killed from being stabbed by a sword at the order of King Herod Agrippa I. -
The Apostles gather in Jerusalem to discuss whether a man has to be circumcised in order to be saved. They decide against. -
Saint Peter, the first Pope and Bishop of Rome was crucified upside down, feeling not worthy to die like his Lord, during Emperor Nero's persecution of Christians. -
Saint Paul was beheaded during Emperor Nero's persecution of Christians. -
Contemporarily believed to have been written around 70 A.D. Saint Mark, disciple of Saint Peter, under inspiration of the Holy Spirit writes his account of the Gospel. -
After a rebellion by the Jews, Roman legions commanded by Titus capture Jerusalem and destroy the Second Temple. -
Saint Thomas the Apostle is killed in Mylapore, India by being stabbed with a spear. His work was most prominent in Kerala. -
Contemporarily believed to have been written around 80 A.D. Saint Matthew, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, writes his account of the Gospel. -
Contemporarily believed to have been written around 80 A.D. Saint Luke, physician, historian and follower of Saint Paul, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, writes his account of the Gospel along with the Book of the Acts of the Apostles, addressed to Theophilus. -
Contemporarily believed to have been written around 90 A.D. Saint John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, writes his account of the Gospel at the request of the churches. -
Around 100 A.D. Saint John, the last Apostle and member of the 12 Disciples passes away from old age on the island of Patmos. He is the only Apostle to not suffer martyrdom. With his death, the Apostolic Age comes to a close. -
Saint Ignatius, also called Theophorus, Bishop of Antioch, disciple of Saint John, is taken to Rome and fed to animals in the Colosseum. -
Saint Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, disciple of Saint John, is burned at the stake and pierced after the flames do not consume him, ending his life. -
Saint Justin Martyr writes his great apologetic work, First Apology for the Emperor Antoninus Pius. -
Origen of Alexandria completes Conta Celsum, one of the most important Christian apologetic works of antiquity. -
Roman Emperor Decius issued an edict forcing all citizens of the Roman Empire to sacrifice to pagan gods, leading to widespread persecution of Christians. -
Emperor Valerian, like Decius, ordered all Christians to submit to the Roman religion, upon refusal many Christians including Saint Cyprian of Carthage, Pope Saint Sixtus II and Saint Lawrence were executed. -
After having a vision of Christ telling him that he would conquer with the chi-rho, Emperor Constantine the Great becomes the first Christian Emperor and legalises Christianity. -
Also known as the holy forty, the 40 martyrs of Sebaste were a group of Christians killed by their prefect after openly professing their faith. -
The first ecumenical council. 318 bishops gather together at the behest of Roman Emperor Constantine the Great at the city of Nicaea to condemn Arianism, the teachings of the heretic Arius, who professed the Son of God to be a created being thus essentially denying the divinity of Jesus. -
Emperor Theodosius I issues the decree De Fide Catolica which makes Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire. -
The second ecumenical council. In order to finally defeat Arianism, an ecumenical council was called by Emperor Theodosius I to reinforce Nicaea I and to unify Christendom. -
Under Pope Saint Damasus I, a synod was held in Rome. The surviving proceedings outline a list of canonical books of the Bible which are the same as the modern day Catholic canon. -
For the first time, a biblical canon was approved, comprised of the 46 books of the Old Testament and 27 books of the New Testament. -
St Jerome completes his Latin translation of the Bible which would become the dominant translation of the Bible for hundreds of years. -
Saint Augustine completes his famous theological autobiography. It is a master-work of Theology. -
Saint Augustine, Bishop of Hippo alongside other orthodox bishops put an end to heretical Donatism in North Africa. -
Saint Augustine of Hippo completes his magnum opus, The City of God. Spanning 13 years of his life, it is one of the greatest works of Theology ever written. -
The third ecumenical council. Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius petitions Roman Emperor Theodosius II to call an ecumenical council to validate his Theological beliefs due to opposition from the Patriarch of Alexandria Cyril. These beliefs emphasise that Jesus' human and divine natures are separate and so Mary should be called Christotokos instead of Theotokos. With the backing of Pope Saint Celestine I, Cyril wins and Nestorianism is condemned. -
The fourth ecumenical council. Under the emperorship of Marcian, an ecumenical council affirming the proceedings from Ephesus was held. Condemning Nestorianism and Monophysitism, proclaiming Christ possessing 2 natures in 1 person. -
Clovis I, King of the Franks, after unifying his people, converts to Catholic Christianity and is baptised at the behest of his wife Saint Clotilde. The Frankish people follow, abandoning their pagan ways for Christianity. -
The Order of Saint Benedict is established following the teachings and monastic lifestyle of Saint Benedict of Nursia. -
Under Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the Hagia Sophia is completed, one of the largest churches in the world. -
A period when the Byzantine emperor dominated the Papacy with all Papal consecrations requiring his approval.
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The fifth ecumenical council. Convoked by Emperor Justinian it focused on condemning the “Three Chapters”—writings and theologians seen as sympathetic to Nestorianism. -
Pope Saint Gregory I the Great sends Saint Augustine of Canterbury to convert the English, although afraid at first, his mission is largely successful. -
Held in the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, the Celtic Church in the British Isles agrees to follow the rest of the Church on issues such as the date of Easter. -
The sixth ecumenical council. It condemned the heresy of Monothelitism, which taught that Christ had only one will (divine), and instead affirmed that Jesus Christ possesses two wills—divine and human—corresponding to his two natures. -
After Muslims invade Iberia, the Christians fight back to recover the peninsula. The Reconquista ends after over 700 years with the surrender of Granada, when Emir Muhammad XII handed over the city to the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
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Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, gives the Pope control of the lands in central Italy, establishing the Papal States. -
The seventh ecumenical council. It addressed the controversy over the use of icons (religious images) in Christian worship, affirming their veneration as legitimate and important for devotion while condemning Iconoclasm (the rejection or destruction of icons) as heretical. The council distinguished between veneration (proskynesis) given to icons and worship (latreia) due to God alone. -
Pope Saint Leo III crowns King Charlemagne of the Franks as the Roman Emperor furthering the split with the Eastern churches. -
A temporary schism occurred between the Eastern and Western churches after Byzantine Emperor Michael III forced Saint Ignatius to resign as Patriarch of Constantinople and installed the layman Photius. Pope Saint Nicholas the Great opposed this move and after his legates approved Photius' rise, he excommunicated Photius with Photius doing the same in return. The affair was settled when Basil the Macedonian usurped the Byzantine throne and reinstated Ignatius -
The eighth ecumenical council. It was convened by Emperor Basil I and Pope Adrian II to address a major church conflict involving the deposition of Patriarch Photius I of Constantinople, who had been appointed under controversial circumstances. The council condemned Photius, reinstated his predecessor Ignatius, and reaffirmed the authority of the pope over church matters. While the Catholic Church accepts this council, the Eastern Orthodox churches reject it. -
The German king Otto the Great revives the Holy Roman Empire by being coronated the new Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. -
The Duke of Poland Mieszko I converts to Catholicism along with most of his nation. His wife Dobrawa of Bohemia played a significant role in his conversion. -
After growing tensions and Theological disagreements between the Western churches and Eastern churches, Pope Leo IX and Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius officially excommunicate each other and the churches that follow them. -
The Gregorian Reform was a series of 11th-century to 12th-century Church reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII. It aimed to end simony, enforce clerical celibacy, and eliminate lay investiture. The reform strengthened papal authority and sought to free the Church from secular influence, whilst promoting the Pope's secular authority internationally as well as over the Roman nobility.
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A conflict brewed between Christian monarchs, particularly the Holy Roman Emperor, and the Pope over whether the state had to authority to choose clergy. -
Saint Bruno of Cologne established the Order of Carthusians, an order for monks to live in seclusion. -
In response to Muslim aggression, raiding and invasion of Christian lands, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos petitioned Pope Urban II for military aid. Pope Urban called the first Crusade. Men from all across Europe travelled to the Holy Land to establish Crusader States. -
Pope Callixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V brought about the end of the Investiture Controversy by agreeing that all clergy must take vows of obedience to the state but that their selection is by the Church. -
The ninth ecumenical council. Convened by Pope Callixtus II to confirm the Concordat of Worms, which had resolved the Investiture Controversy. The council affirmed the Church’s independence in spiritual matters, especially the right to elect bishops and abbots without interference from lay rulers. It also issued canons on clerical celibacy, simony (the buying or selling of church offices), and Church discipline -
The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, commonly known as the Knights Templar, during the Council of Troyes. Initially established around 1119 by Hugues de Payens and eight other knights, their mission was to protect Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land. They soon gained papal support, military privileges, and grew into a powerful religious-military order during the Crusades. -
The tenth ecumenical council. Convened by Pope Innocent II, it aimed to restore unity and order in the Church after a major schism caused by the election of antipope Anacletus II. The council confirmed Innocent II's legitimacy as pope and declared Anacletus's acts invalid. It also issued 30 canons addressing Church reform, including strict enforcement of clerical celibacy, condemnation of simony, and prohibition of laymen bearing arms in churches. -
Launched after the fall of the Crusader state of Edessa to Muslim forces. Led by King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III of Germany, it ended in failure due to poor coordination and heavy losses. The only major success was the capture of Lisbon from the Moors by Portuguese and Crusader forces. The main campaign in the Holy Land failed to retake Edessa or achieve significant gains. -
The Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel was founded on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land. It's origins are shrouded in mystery, with no significant founder, it claims the Prophets Saint Elijah and Saint Elisha as its spiritual fathers. -
Taking the name of Saint James the Greater, the Order of Santiago was established in the Kingdom of León to protect Christian pilgrims and fight in the Reconquista against the Moors. -
The eleventh ecumenical council. Called by Pope Alexander III. It ended a papal schism by confirming his legitimacy over rival antipopes and reformed Church practices. It limited papal elections to cardinals, condemned simony and heresies like Catharism, and addressed clerical discipline and education. -
Growing hatred against Latins in Constantinople leads to mass killings of them by the Greeks. The bitter feeling left by this event largely contributed to the sacking of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. -
After the death of Baldwin IV the Leper, Saladin captures Jerusalem. The crusade was launched to retake the holy city. Led by Richard the Lionheart, Philip II of France, and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who died en route), it achieved victories like the capture of Acre but failed to retake Jerusalem. A truce allowed Christian pilgrims access to the city. -
Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, also known as the Teutonic Order, was founded during the Siege of Acre in the Third Crusade. Originally established as a hospital order by German crusaders to aid Christian pilgrims, it became a military order in 1198, officially recognized by the Pope. The order later played a major role in the Baltic Crusades and the Christianization of Prussia and surrounding regions. -
The Fourth Crusade was intended to reclaim Jerusalem but was diverted due to political and financial issues. Instead, Crusaders sacked Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in 1204 which the Pope condemned. This led to the creation of the short-lived Latin Empire and deepened the East–West Christian divide. The crusade never reached the Holy Land. -
Following the humble and gentle lifestyle of Saint Francis of Assisi, the Orders of Friars Minor live lives of poverty, dvoted to helping others and aiding their local community. -
Pope Innocent III called for action against the Cathars, most prominent in Languedoc. The heretical group's religion was dualistic and anti-material. After military campaigns were held against them, an inquisition spread, forcing penance on remaining Cathars. The crusades greatly weakened the Cathars, leading to their eradication. -
The twelfth ecumenical council, called by Pope Innocent III, was one of the most important medieval councils. It defined key doctrines, including transubstantiation, mandated annual confession and communion, and set rules for clergy reform. It also launched the Fifth Crusade and imposed measures against heresies like Catharism. -
Saint Dominic founds the Order of Preachers and is approved by Pope Honorius III via papal bull Religiosam vitam. Today the Dominicans are known for their intellectual prowess. Notable members include Saint Thomas Aquinas and Father Garrigou-Lagrange. -
The crusade aimed to conquer Egypt, seen as the key to controlling the Holy Land. Led by European forces, including King Andrew II of Hungary and Pelagius, a papal legate, the crusade initially captured Damietta. However, poor leadership and refusal to accept peace terms led to a disastrous retreat and surrender in 1221. -
Led by Emperor Frederick II, this crusade was unique for achieving its goals through diplomacy, not battle. Excommunicated at the time, Frederick negotiated a treaty with Sultan al-Kamil of Egypt, regaining Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth for Christians. -
While being an Augustinian encompasses multiple religious orders, the largest and most ancient is the Order of Saint Augustine, previously the Hermits of Saint Augustine, following the rule of Saint Augustine of Hippo. -
The thirteenth ecumenical council, convened by Pope Innocent IV, addressed Church reforms and political conflicts. It condemned and excommunicated Emperor Frederick II for defying papal authority, escalating the power struggle between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. The council also discussed crusade efforts and aimed to strengthen Church discipline and unity. -
King Louis IX of France, targeted Egypt to weaken Muslim power and reclaim Jerusalem. The crusaders captured Damietta but were eventually defeated and Louis was captured near Cairo. After his release, the crusade ended without major gains, marking another failure to secure the Holy Land. -
One of Saint Thomas Aquinas' greatest works, Summa contra Gentiles was a precursor to the Summa Theologiae but nonetheless impressive. -
Again King Louis IX of France crusaded, targeting Tunis in North Africa instead of the Holy Land. The campaign was short-lived—Louis died of illness shortly after arriving, and the crusaders made little progress before negotiating a peace treaty. -
Saint Thomas Aquinas passes away leaving his Summa Theologiae unfinished. His magnum opus, the Summa is considered one of the greatest works of Theology in History, combining Christianity with Aristotilean metaphysics. His students complete their master's work. -
The fourteenth ecumenical council. It temporarily reconciled with the Byzantine Orthodox Church by accepting papal primacy, though the union was short-lived. The council also reformed Church administration, set rules for papal elections. -
A period of time when the Pope resided in Avignon in the Kingdom of Arles, Holy Roman Empire
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The fifteenth ecumenical council. Called by Pope Clement V, it addressed several key issues including the suppression of the Knights Templar, whose order was disbanded amid accusations of heresy. -
After the death of Pope Gregory XI, 3 bishops claimed the Papacy. While only one was valid, this led to disunity and confusion. -
The sixteenth ecumenical council. With the Council of Constance, the Pope resigned and the Antipopes were deposed, marking the end of the Western Schism and restoring unity under Pope Martin V. -
After the execution of Jan Hus, his followers in the Kingdom of Bohemia resist Catholic and Holy Roman authority. After a series of crusades, all ending in failure, the Hussites after much internal dispute end up submitting to Rome -
The seventeenth ecumenical council. It saw great dialogue with the East which almost culminated in reunification however the East backed out. -
Christopher Columbus lands in the New World forever uniting the Americas with the rest of the world, from this discovery the Catholic faith will be spread over the majority of the vast newly discovered continents. -
The eighteenth ecumenical council, convened by Pope Julius II. It sought to re-assert papal authority, end disputes between Catholic rulers, condemn heresy and reform the Church with regards to clerical discipline and moral behaviour. The failure to enact the teachings of the council unfortunately led to the Protestant revolt. -
Michelangelo finishes the gruelling task of painting the Sistine Chapel adorning it with some of the greatest works of art ever made. -
Amidst growing corruption, a German Friar Martin Luther draws up his 95 Theses denying several doctrines of the Catholic Church. With no intention of denying his heretical views, Luther and others, with the support of nobles seeking to further their own power, begin a rebellion against the Catholic Church culminating in Protestantism and the fracturing of Western Christianity. -
Famous explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first man to circumnavigate the globe, introduces Catholicism to the Philippines. -
The Virgin Mary appears to Saint Juan Diego four times in Guadalupe, Mexico, leading to the conversion of nine million people to the Catholic faith, offsetting the loss from the Protestant Revolt. An image appeared out of these apparitions which many claim has a divine origin due to the how incredibly sophisticated it is. -
Seeking an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, King Henry VIII of England officially breaks ties with Rome and places himself as head of the Church of England. -
All monasteries in England are closed by order of Henry VIII to fund the crown. -
Founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola SJ, the Society of Jesus works to promote ecumenical dialogue while helping the less fortunate. -
The nineteenth ecumenical council. The Council of Trent was called in response to the growing Protestant Revolt. Trent began the Catholic Counter-Reformation outlining Soteriology, Canon of Scripture and other beliefs in opposition to the Protestants. It also addressed the corruption that had concerned the now Protestants. -
One of the co-founders of the Jesuits, Saint Francis Xavier SJ, makes the first Christian mission to Japan. -
The Chaldean church in Iraq leaves the Church of the East and reunifies with the Catholic Church after bishops appoint Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa who goes to Rome and is consecrated by the Pope. -
A series of conflicts within France between the Catholic monarchy and Protestant Huguenots. Many died on both sides with massacres taking place, the most famous being the Saint Bartholomew's Eve massacre. The conflicts weakened the monarchy's power but established a Catholic France.
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Ruthenian Eastern Orthodox churches in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth enter into communion with the Catholic Church, maintaining their traditions and liturgy. -
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the powerful regent of Japan, began to view Christianity as a potential challenge to his authority. 26 Christians were executed by crucifixion in Nagasaki after being paraded over 800 kilometers. -
Seeing Christianity as an increasing threat, the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in Japan in 1614 and murdered 55 Catholics in Nagasaki. -
The modern day Saint Peter's Basilica is completed. -
With a growing devotion to Jesus' heart developing over the centuries from reported visions and dreams by saints and mystics, the first feast dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, embodying his love for humanity, is celebrated. One of the most notable of these saints is St Gertrude the Great. -
The first Catholic archdiocese in the United States is founded at Baltimore, covering the entire nation, led by Archbishop John Carroll SJ. -
Amidst the French Revolution, a period of intense paranoia, extreme political violence and repression. began. Many Christians and priests were killed. -
The Sinyu Persecution, also called the Catholic Persecution of 1801, was a mass killing of Catholics in Korea by orders of Queen Jeongsun, queen consort of King Joseon, who saw Catholicism as a threat to the Confucian social order. -
Saint Mary appeared to Saint Bernadette Soubirous, a French nun of the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. She instructed the nun to have a medal struck depicting Mary standing on a globe with rays of light coming from her hands, surrounded by the words “O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee.” The medal has been associated with miracles. -
The Virgin Mary appears to Maximin Giraud and Melanie Calvat, near the village of La Salette in the French Alps. According to their testimony, Mary appeared weeping and delivered a message calling for repentance, prayer, and conversion, warning of future hardships if people did not amend their ways. -
With an improving situation for Catholics in England brought about by the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and the Oxford Movement, Pope Pius IX issues Universalis Ecclesiae re-establishing the Catholic hierarchy in England. The new dioceses do not follow the ancient dioceses. -
The Blessed Virgin Mary appears to 14 year old Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes, France several times introducing herself by saying "I am the Immaculate Conception", instructing her to dig in the ground revealing a spring with the waters healing many; making it a popular pilgrimage site to this day. -
Saint John Bosco SDB founds the Society of Saint Francis de Sales focusing on education, vocational training, and youth ministry. -
The Catholic Persecution of 1866, also called the Byeongin Persecution, was a widespread murder of Catholics in Korea under the regency of Heungseon Daewongun. An estimated 8,000–10,000 Korean Catholics were executed. -
The twentieth ecumenical council. It outlined the doctrine of Papal Infallibility and denounced Secularism, Communism and other Atheist beliefs. -
With Italian unification nearing its end, the Kingdom of Italy declared war and invaded Rome thereby bringing an end to the Papal States which had existed for over 1000 years. -
German politicians led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck sought to subordinate ecclesial authorities to the state and limit the influence they have in everyday life. This caused conflict between the Church and the new German Empire. Several policies were enacted such as the expulsion of the Jesuits from Germany. Ultimately, Bismarck's struggle failed as he faced serious opposition from the Catholic Germans and minorities within the Empire and the Centre party. -
The Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and Saint John the Evangelist appeared praying to several people in Knock, Ireland. -
What begun in 1248 is finally completed. Cologne Cathedral stands as one of the most beautiful pieces of architecture ever constructed. -
A massive anti-imperialist uprising breaks out in North China backed by massive anti-Christian sentiments leading to the murder of tens of thousands of Christians. -
The Virgin Mary appears to three children, Lúcia dos Santosin, Francisco and Jacinta Marto, in Portugal speaking prophecies and performing miracles. -
Pope Pius X ordered the first write-up of the Code of Canon Law which was overseen by Pietro Cardinal Gasparri and promulgated under Pope Benedict XV -
After the Mexican Revolution, the 1917 Constitution introduced strict anti-clerical laws. President Plutarco Elías Calles enforced what was called the Calles Law, restricting church activities, banning religious education, and expelling foreign clergy. This led to an uprising by the country's Catholics. The US eventually mediated a peace which relaxed the suppression of Christianity but did not amend the Constitution. -
In the Lateran Pacts, a treaty was signed between the Church under the pontificate of Pius XI and the Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel III and Benito Mussolini. It stipulated the creation of Vatican City as an independent nation with financial reimbursement for the loss of the Papal States, thus solving the Roman question. -
After Jesus appears to Polish nun Saint Maria Faustina Kowalska of the Congregation of the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy, he instructs her to commission a painting of himself. Jesus tells Saint Faustina to encourage others to bear devotion to the image and to Jesus' divine mercy. The original painting is done by Eugeniusz Kazimirowski; for the first time at Mass in Lithuania, the feast of the divine mercy is celebrated. -
Leftists during the Spanish Civil War murdered tens of thousands of Catholics, including 6,832 Roman Catholic priests. -
J.R.R. Tolkien publishes the last book of The Lord of the Rings, his magnum opus fantasy, celebrating European tradition and mythology while being heavily influenced by Tolkien's Catholicism. -
The twenty first ecumenical council. Needing to adapt to the modern age, Pope Saint John XXIII called an ecumenical council to increase the laity's participation in the Church and to increase ecumenism. Its completion was overseen by John's successor Pope Saint Paul VI. -
Archbishop Saint Óscar Romero, an outspoken critic of the El Salvadoran military government is shot and killed by an assassin while celebrating Mass. He was known for speaking out against social injustice and violence. -
Under Pope Saint John Paul II, a unified codex of the doctrines of the Catholic Church is promulgated -
The Vatican and the People's Republic of China made an agreement permitting the Church autonomy over its selection of bishops. Bishops are selected by the Apostolic See whilst loyal to China. While it is not a formal recognition of the PRC, the deal sparked controversy.