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Period: 55 BCE to 500
The Roman Invasion
Native Britons introduced Latin into Britain, which became a language of administration, education and the arts. Latin words were particularly borrowed into Old English in relation to trade as well as military and everyday life. The names of many British towns reflect Roman presence The suffixes ‘-chester’ and ‘-caster’ come from the Latin ‘castrum’ (military camp) and appear in the names of towns like Manchester and Lancaster. -
Period: 401 to 599
The Anglo-Saxon Settlement
Approximately 70% of words employed in modern English are of Anglo-Saxon origin, e.g., the basic vocabulary of 'house', 'food' and 'sing'. The pattern of grammar also retained its Anglo-Saxon nature to a great extent. The Old English received very little influence from the Celtic languages with the exception of geographical terms like river names and city names. So, the Anglo-Saxon era set the foundation of contemporary English, determining its core lexical and grammatical characteristics. -
Period: 701 to 1100
The Viking Invasions
Scandinavian terms such as 'sky', 'egg', 'knife' and 'window' have become an integral part of everyday usage. The Scandinavian element has assisted English grammar in keeping it simpler in the sense of minimizing the deployment of inflection and producing analytic constructions. A large number of the place names, especially in north and east England, are Scandinavian in origin, such as the suffixes '-by' in the toponyms of towns such as Derby and Grimsby. -
1066
The Norman Conquest
Following the Conquest, French was the language of government, court, church, and education, spoken mainly by the upper classes, while the lower classes spoke English. This led to the borrowing of up to 10,000 French words, particularly in law, government, art, and literature, such as 'court', 'government' and 'art'. English pronunciation and spelling were also influenced by French. By the late fourteenth century, English had resumed its dominance but with a vast lexis of French loanwords. -
1476
The Introduction of the Printing
The introduction of printed books assisted in standardising grammar and spelling since texts became standardised and more accessible. In addition, the dissemination of printed material enlarged the vocabulary of the language as new phrases and words were added. English books increase vocabulary and improve spelling through reading. -
Period: 1485 to
The Renaissance
At this point, English borrowed from French, German, Dutch, Latin, and Ancient Greek. In the 14th-16th centuries, the Great Vowel Shift transformed phonetics, introducing long vowels and altering speech. English sailors, artists, scholars, and aristocrats traveling Europe borrowed words from Persian, Malay, Arabic, and Indian, such as 'coffee', 'bamboo', 'alcohol', and 'guru'. Thus, the Renaissance enriched English through borrowings and pronunciation shifts. -
Period: 1500 to
The Expansion of the British Empire
The expansion of the British Empire propelled the dissemination of English worldwide. English is officially spoken in 67 countries and used widely in international trade, science and culture. Through colonisation, English borrowed words from indigenous languages, enriching its lexicon. For example, the words 'voodoo' and 'zombie' were derived from African languages, and 'boomerang' and 'nugget' were derived from Australian languages. -
Period: to
The Industrial Revolution
The British Industrial Revolution also introduced numerous new words to describe technological and social transformation. Thus, the terms 'steam-vessel', 'reservoir' and 'condenser' entered into everyday usage. Other languages have also contributed words to English, e.g., 'factory' from Italian 'fabrica' and 'engine' from Latin 'ingenium'. The Industrial Revolution accordingly added many new words and expressions to English, mirroring social and industrial developments. -
Period: to
The Rise of the United States
It contributed towards the globalisation of English. American English began to influence international norms, especially in the fields of science and technology and culture. American culture, including films, music, and literature, has immensely influenced other countries, disseminating American phrases and accents. This led new words and phrases in the English language that reflect the American way of life and mindset. -
Period: to
The Digital Revolution
It’s an era associated with the genesis of the computer, the internet, and digital communications. It has greatly affected the English language by accelerating its trend towards globalisation, easier dissemination of new words and altering forms of communication.
The main changes are: The creation of new words and terms (e-mail, blog, meme, emoji, hashtag). Internet slang and abbreviations The impact of social networks and messengers on the way of communication