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The Earth enters a period of intense cold during the Ice Age, and large amounts of water are locked in glaciers, lowering sea levels. This creates a land bridge, called Beringia, between present-day Siberia (Asia) and Alaska (North America). -
Early human groups, likely following large game like mammoths, begin moving eastward across Beringia, unaware they are moving from one continent to another. These groups were small and highly mobile, relying on hunting and gathering. -
As glaciers cover much of North America, human groups continue to move across Beringia. At this point, some may have started settling in Beringia, living off the land while others continued migrating further into the Americas. -
The ice begins to recede as the climate warms slightly, but the Bering Strait remains passable for thousands of years. Migration continues, possibly accelerating as the mammoth herds move further south. -
First humans arrive in America via the Beringia land bridge. -
With ice sheets retreating, the first groups may have begun moving south along the Pacific coast, where the climate was less harsh. These groups might have made use of small boats or followed coastal resources. -
By this time, humans have settled as far as the southern United States and Central America. Distinct tools and cultures, such as the Clovis point, begin to emerge. -
Development of agriculture in Mesoamerica and other regions. -
The Bering Strait land bridge disappears as the sea level rises again, but humans have already spread across North, Central, and South America. Settlements become more established, leading to the development of diverse Native American cultures. -
The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, noted for their engineering, architecture, and political organization. -
A powerful empire that dominated much of Mesoamerica, known for their tribute system, religion, and the construction of Tenochtitlan. -
Developed a writing system and built Monte Albán, an important ceremonial center. -
Influential on Aztec culture; known for their art and architecture, especially in Tula. -
An advanced culture in writing, mathematics, astronomy, and architecture; developed cities like Tikal and Palenque. -
Considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, noted for their art, architecture, and early writing systems. -
Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, lands on the coast of Mexico near present-day Veracruz with a small force of around 600 men, 16 horses, and several cannons. He begins his conquest of the Aztec Empire. -
Cortés sets out inland to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, after establishing alliances with several indigenous groups, including the Tlaxcalans, who are enemies of the Aztecs. -
Cortés and his forces reach Tenochtitlán and are greeted by the Aztec Emperor Montezuma II. The Aztecs, believing Cortés might be the return of the god Quetzalcoatl, initially treat the Spanish with hospitality. -
After initial peaceful interactions, tensions rise. Cortés takes Montezuma hostage in his own palace, hoping to control the Aztec Empire through the emperor. -
La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows): Spanish forces are forced to retreat from Tenochtitlán after a violent uprising. Montezuma is killed during the chaos, either by the Aztecs or by the Spanish (the exact cause is unclear). The Spanish suffer heavy losses. -
Cortés receives reinforcements from the Spanish governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, and prepares for a return assault. The Aztecs begin to mobilize their forces in full opposition to the Spanish. -
After months of siege and intense fighting, Tenochtitlán falls to the Spanish and their indigenous allies. The city’s population, weakened by disease and starvation, is unable to withstand the final assault. The Aztec Empire officially collapses. -
Cortés returns to Tenochtitlán with a larger force, including thousands of indigenous allies, notably from Tlaxcala. The Spanish begin a prolonged siege of the city, cutting off food and water supplies.