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30,000 BCE
Last Glacial Maximum begins 35,000 to 30,000
The Earth enters a period of intense cold during the Ice Age, and large amounts of water are locked in glaciers, lowering sea levels. This creates a land bridge, called Beringia, between present-day Siberia (Asia) and Alaska (North America). -
24,980 BCE
First migrations may have started 30,000 to 24,980
Early human groups, likely following large game like mammoths, begin moving eastward across Beringia, unaware they are moving from one continent to another. These groups were small and highly mobile, relying on hunting and gathering. -
20,000 BCE
Peak migration period 25,000 to 20,000
As glaciers cover much of North America, human groups continue to move across Beringia. At this point, some may have started settling in Beringia, living off the land while others continued migrating further into the Americas. -
16,000 BCE
Beringia still present 20,000 to 16,000
The ice begins to recede as the climate warms slightly, but the Bering Strait remains passable for thousands of years. Migration continues, possibly accelerating as the mammoth herds move further south. -
15,000 BCE
Paleolithic Era (c. 15,000 BCE)
First humans arrive in America via the Beringia land bridge. -
14,000 BCE
Coastal routes emerge 16,000 to 14,000
With ice sheets retreating, the first groups may have begun moving south along the Pacific coast, where the climate was less harsh. These groups might have made use of small boats or followed coastal resources. -
12,000 BCE
Clovis culture emerges 14,000 to 12,000
By this time, humans have settled as far as the southern United States and Central America. Distinct tools and cultures, such as the Clovis point, begin to emerge. -
10,000 BCE
Neolithic Era (c. 10,000 BCE)
Development of agriculture in Mesoamerica and other regions. -
9000 BCE
End of Ice Age from 10,000 to 9,000
The Bering Strait land bridge disappears as the sea level rises again, but humans have already spread across North, Central, and South America. Settlements become more established, leading to the development of diverse Native American cultures. -
1533 BCE
Incas (c. 1438 CE - 1533 CE)
The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, noted for their engineering, architecture, and political organization. -
1521 BCE
Aztecs (c. 1300 CE - 1521 CE)
A powerful empire that dominated much of Mesoamerica, known for their tribute system, religion, and the construction of Tenochtitlan. -
1500 BCE
Zapotecs (c. 1,000 BCE - 1,500 CE)
Developed a writing system and built Monte Albán, an important ceremonial center. -
1200 BCE
Toltecs (c. 900 CE - 1200 CE)
Influential on Aztec culture; known for their art and architecture, especially in Tula. -
900 BCE
Mayans (c. 200 BCE - 900 CE)
An advanced culture in writing, mathematics, astronomy, and architecture; developed cities like Tikal and Palenque. -
400 BCE
Olmecs (c. 1,500 BCE - 400 BCE)
Considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, noted for their art, architecture, and early writing systems. -
1519
1519: Arrival of Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, lands on the coast of Mexico near present-day Veracruz with a small force of around 600 men, 16 horses, and several cannons. He begins his conquest of the Aztec Empire. -
1519
March 1519: Cortés Marches Inland
Cortés sets out inland to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, after establishing alliances with several indigenous groups, including the Tlaxcalans, who are enemies of the Aztecs. -
1519
August 1519: First Encounter with Montezuma
Cortés and his forces reach Tenochtitlán and are greeted by the Aztec Emperor Montezuma II. The Aztecs, believing Cortés might be the return of the god Quetzalcoatl, initially treat the Spanish with hospitality. -
1519
November 1519: Cortés Takes Montezuma Captive
After initial peaceful interactions, tensions rise. Cortés takes Montezuma hostage in his own palace, hoping to control the Aztec Empire through the emperor. -
1520
June 1520: The Siege of Tenochtitlán Begins
Cortés receives reinforcements from the Spanish governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, and prepares for a return assault. The Aztecs begin to mobilize their forces in full opposition to the Spanish. -
1520
May 1520: Spanish Withdrawal
La Noche Triste (The Night of Sorrows): Spanish forces are forced to retreat from Tenochtitlán after a violent uprising. Montezuma is killed during the chaos, either by the Aztecs or by the Spanish (the exact cause is unclear). The Spanish suffer heavy losses. -
1521
August 13, 1521: Fall of Tenochtitlán
After months of siege and intense fighting, Tenochtitlán falls to the Spanish and their indigenous allies. The city’s population, weakened by disease and starvation, is unable to withstand the final assault. The Aztec Empire officially collapses. -
1521
April 1521: Cortés Returns to Tenochtitlán
Cortés returns to Tenochtitlán with a larger force, including thousands of indigenous allies, notably from Tlaxcala. The Spanish begin a prolonged siege of the city, cutting off food and water supplies.