-
Triangular Trade
A ship filled with manufactured products started in Britain and sailed down to Africa where it would exchange its goods for slaves. Then, the ship would travel through the Middle Passage, a horrendous trip for the slaves that killed over half of them, and arrive in the West Indies where the slaves would be dropped off to work on sugar plantations. To complete the cycle, the ship would load up with sugar and molasses and venture back to Britain where the raw goods could be sold for a profit. -
The Molasses Act
Britain eliminated French competition by taxing all molasses imported from foreign colonies and ensuring that the colonies only consumed British molasses. However, the Molasses Act was ineffectual, promoting smuggling within the colonies and planting seeds of rebellion. Later, the Sugar Act of 1764 lowered the tax on sugar to prevent smuggling, but the colonists loathed the British so much that they would rather commit crimes than support the British economy. -
The Great Awakening
During the Great Awakening, New Lights preached salvation through faith rather than the traditional belief of earning one's way to heaven. They also taught that God's relationship was personal to everyone and that all were loved equally, raising the question of why certain people, families, or groups were in power. Led by George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, the Great Awakening revived religious convictions, encouraged equality, and supported education and literacy to read the Bible. -
The Albany Plan of Union
During the French and Indian War, Benjamin Franklin called the Albany Congress to discuss an alliance with the natives and options to deal with French threats. Franklin proposed his plan to unite all the colonies, famously stating "Join, or die." However, most delegates disapproved of the Albany Plan because they identified with their colonies rather than the entire nation. Despite failing, the Albany Plan was extremely significant as it was the first time someone suggested uniting together. -
The Proclamation of 1763
Since the extremely expensive French and Indian War was fought in the colonies, British officials reasoned that the colonies were responsible for paying for it. As a result, Britain abruptly ended benign neglect and kept troops in the colonies to enforce new laws including the Proclamation of 1763, banning westward expansion past the Appalachian Mountains in the colonies to avoid further conflicts with Natives. Like many other British laws, colonists ignored them and settled in the West anyway. -
Boston Tea Party
Due to the lack of representation in Parliament, increasing taxes on goods, and escalating tensions after the Boston Massacre, Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Native Americans and threw 340 chests of tea overboard. As a result, Britain countered with the Coercive Acts that closed the Port of Boston until the lost tea was reimbursed, destroying the colonies' economies, took over their governments, and gave royal officials the power to commit crimes without charge. -
Second Continental Congress
A month after Lexington and Concord, colonial delegates gathered in Philadelphia. They were split into the Radicals, led by John and Samuel Adams, who wrote the Declaration of Causes and Necessity of Taking Arms, and the Conservatives, led by John Dickenson, who wanted peace with Britain. They compromised and wrote the Olive Branch Petition, requesting representation in Parliament for peace, but King George III rejected it, so Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, declaring war. -
The Battle of Trenton
The winter in Valley Forge was extremely rough as the Continental Army did not have enough food or supplies and had not won a significant battle in months, resulting in low morale. To boost morale, Thomas Paine wrote American Crisis, a series of essays encouraging soldiers to push through the tough winter times. Still, the army needed a victory, so Washington led them across the Delaware River on Christmas morning and they defeated the Hessian mercenaries stationed in Trenton. -
The Battle of Saratoga
The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point in the Revolutionary War for the Americans. Due to their lack of knowledge of American terrain, the British army got stuck in a swamp, allowing the Continental Army to ambush and capture the entire British army. The gained supplies and captives notably boosted Americans' morale, gaining war support. Additionally, the victory in Saratoga enabled Benjamin Franklin to secure an alliance with France, which sent out its army and Navy to help the Americans. -
The Connecticut Compromise
During the Constitutional Convention, delegates created a new Constitution, but large and small states disagreed on representation. Larger states favored the Virginia Plan, which featured population-based votes, while smaller states supported the New Jersey Plan, with equal votes. The Connecticut Compromise established a Congress with two legislative chambers: the Senate followed the New Jersey Plan, and the House of Representatives followed the Virginia Plan, benefiting states of all sizes. -
Shays' Rebellion
When Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran, returned home, he was greeted with a void of debt instead of being treated with respect. Similarly, veteran farmers all over the colonies faced unpayable debts, and the threat of land confiscation, or being thrown into debtors' prisons. As a result, a militia group in Massachusetts, led by Shays, successfully overthrew local courthouses due to the lack of a national standing army, as mandated by the Articles of Confederation, highlighting its flaws. -
The Northwest Ordinance
Jefferson's Northwest Ordinance provided the guidelines for entering new states into the Union by creating population requirements. When a territory's population was under 5,000 free adult men, Congress would pick a governor and judges to administer the territory. After 5,000 people, the citizens of the territory could elect a legislature. When the territory grew to encompass over 60,000 people, it could apply to join the Confederation, eventually creating Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin. -
Bill of Rights
After the Articles of Confederation proved too weak, it was clear that a stronger federal government was needed, but there was a discrepancy about how much power it could have. The Constitution was largely written by Federalists including Madison, Hamilton, and Franklin, and reflected their belief in a powerful central government. However, Anti-Federalists were scared that the Constitution did not protect individual liberties, so they wrote the Bill of Rights, which helped ratify it. -
Whiskey Rebellion
Whiskey was a crucial part of a farmer's income as surplus grain could often be used to make whiskey which could be exchanged for products or services. Since the tax could either be paid with a large upfront payment or by the gallon, large distillers who could afford the upfront cost ended up paying less than 15 times the poor farmers paid per gallon, resulting in unfair taxation. The Whiskey Rebellion tested the Constitution and Washington's standing army suppressed the uprising successfully. -
Pickney's Treaty
Colonies in New England on the Atlantic coast had convenient access to the international market through the Boston and New York ports. However, colonies positioned between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River were disconnected from the Northeastern ports and the global market. Although they could venture down the Mississippi to the Port of New Orleans, Spain occupied the Mississippi. As a result, Pickney's Treaty was negotiated, granting the river to the US for the next 20 years. -
Alien and Sedition Acts
Contrary to his predecessor, who willingly left office after two years of service, President Adams was desperate to maintain his role in office, even if abusing his power was necessary. As a result, he passed the Naturalization, Alien, and Sedition Acts which targeted Jefferson, his major political opponent. The Naturalization Act required 20 years of residency in the US to vote instead of five, and the Alien and Sedition Acts allowed Adams to violate the people's freedom of speech and press. -
Marbury v. Madison
At the end of Adams's presidency, he created numerous positions in the judicial branch, filling them with Federalists who would prevent Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans from taking over the government, known as the midnight judges. However, in Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court decided that the last-minute appointments were unconstitutional, giving them the power of judicial review. The Court's power to overrule acts of Congress added an essential check and balance to the government. -
Louisiana Purchase
Anti-Federalist, President Jefferson looked out for the farmers and realized that Pickney's Treaty failed to secure the New Orleans Port, so he sent James Monroe to negotiate the port's purchase from Napolean. However, Napolean offered the entire Louisiana Territory to Jefferson for $15 million, a staggering deal that even Jefferson, a strict constructionist, could not refuse. Lewis and Clark explored the new 827,000 acres, interacted with the Natives, and returned with plants and animals. -
Embargo of 1807
Britain and France were engaged in war, and to weaken their opponent's economy, both nations requested the US to trade exclusively with themselves. However, President Jefferson rejected both countries and decided to remain neutral. As a result, he prohibited all foreign trade and consequentially destroyed the US economy, leading to an immediate recession. Despite the depression, US manufacturing spurred and more domestic goods were manufactured, leading to the Industrial Revolution in the US. -
The Battle of Thames
The War of 1812 was partially sparked by Native aggression, supported by Britain, on the frontier. During the Battle of the Thames, the Americans defeated the British and slaughtered the natives, including Tecumseh. The Americans destroyed Prophet's town, named after Tecumseh's brother, and effectively ended Native resistance in the Ohio River Valley, promoting settlement in the region. However, conforming to the seesaw-like battle, the British avenged their loss by burning down the capital. -
The Hartford Convention
New Englanders were unsupportive of the War of 1812 because it disrupted shipping and trade, lowering their incomes and the region's economy. They were also close to the Canadian border and endangered by a possible invasion, so the New Englanders held the Hartford Convention and discussed succeeding from the US and becoming their independent nation, reflecting their discontent with the current Democratic-Republican government. After the war, the rest of the US thought they were unloyal traitors. -
The Battle of New Orleans
Despite the War of 1812 officially ending as a draw with the Treaty of Ghent restoring everything to its pre-war state and prohibiting British impressment, news could not travel from Belgium to the US in time to prevent the Battle of New Orleans. Nevertheless, the US won due to the leadership of Andrew Jackson who strategically dug a deep trench and had soldiers lying on top of a mound shooting while other soldiers behind them reloaded. The victory in New Orleans increased nationalism. -
McCulloch v. Maryland
In 1819, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Congress had the implied power to create a national bank and that states could not tax federal institutions, reinforcing the supremacy of federal law and expanding the scope of federal power. However, during the Bank War in 1832, when Jackson reran for president against Clay, Jackson vetoed the Second Bank's recharter, going against the ruling. After he won the election, Jackson relocated all of the national bank's funds to state-chartered "pet banks." -
The Lowell System
Eli Whitney's cotton gin bolstered the supply of cotton used in Elias Howe's sewing machine, the groundwork for the textile industry. After the introduction of the steam engine, textile mills emerged all across the North, employing young women from the countryside. Despite the low wages, the women, known as "Mill Girls" felt proud to contribute to their household's income and gained a sense of independence. Over time, labor unions were formed to protest wages, and a middle class slowly emerged. -
Missouri Compromise
In 1820, Missouri wanted to be a state, and being in the South, wanted to join as a slave state. However, abolitionists prevented Missouri from entering the Union, enraging the South. Henry Clay stepped in and satisfied both sides by saying that states join as pairs, one free and one slave to maintain the balance and that any territory above the 36-30 line would be free. However, in 1850 when California was ready to join the Union, it crossed the 36-30 line, invalidating the Missouri Compromise. -
The American System
Using Alexander Hamilton's Financial Plan as a guide, Henry Clay created a system using government to grow businesses. After the First Bank of the United States was burned down during the War of 1812, a new strong central bank was necessary, leading to the Second Bank of the United States. Protective tariffs were placed on smaller industries that could not compete internationally to spur domestic manufacturing. Using the revenue raised, roads, railroads, and canals linked the nation together. -
Election of 1824
During the election of 1824, none of the four candidates received a majority of the votes, so the election was turned to the House of Representatives. After Speaker of the House, Henry Clay dropped out of the election and a candidate died, the choices were down to John Quincy Adams or Andrew Jackson. However, some thought the election was corrupt because after going into a closed room privately with Adams, Henry Clay began to heavily support Adams, and eventually managed to vote him into office. -
Tariff of 1824
Northerners thought the tariff was good because it made foreign goods more expensive, which would consequentially encourage people to purchase more goods from the United States, leading to increased business and profits. However, Southerners called it the Tariff of Abominations because it would cause European countries to retaliate by imposing their own tariffs on American goods. Since the Southern lifestyle relied on the export of cotton, the tariff was extremely damaging to their economy. -
The Transportation Revolution
During the early 1800s, canals emerged connecting cities to rivers to the international market. Most notably, the Erie Canal, completed in 1825, linked Buffalo with Albany, allowing goods in the Midwest to reach the Port of Boston via the Great Lakes. Steamboats were created and were revolutionary, despite half of them exploding, because they could travel upstream. The canal era ended as the railroad gained popularity since it was cheaper, faster, and could transport massive amounts of goods. -
Election of 1828
In 1828, political parties first ran against each other with Andrew Jackson founding the Democratic Party. Since the Tariff of 1824 did not sway midwestern states to vote for Adams, the National Republican Party's candidate, Jackson won the election. As president, Jackson introduced rotation in office or the spoils system when he replaced executive branch employees with his supporters, arguing that it would prevent an elite group from forming and make the government more connected to the people. -
Indian Removal Act
The goal of the Indian Removal Act was to open new land for settlement and help the American economy. Although the Supreme Court declared the natives as domestic dependent nations, they also ruled that the natives were distinct political communities with their own laws and rights to self-governance in Worcester v. GA. However, Jackson disregarded the Supreme Court and forced the Natives to march a Trail of Tears to reservations in Oklahoma, setting a precedent for the mistreatment of natives. -
Nat Turner Rebellion
Turner, an enslaved African American preacher who believed he was divinely chosen to lead the revolt, led a rebellion of slaves who killed 60 white people. However, the rebellion ended when Turner was captured, tried, and executed. White militias retaliated and killed many slaves and stricken slave codes in the South, making it impossible for slaves to join together and plan another uprising. The increased tensions between Southern slaves and whites brought the nation closer to the Civil War. -
Nullification Crisis
Under Vice President John C. Calhoun's leadership, the South threatened to nullify the Tariff of Abominations since it favored the North. Jackson tried to compromise with the cheaper Tariff of 1832, but South Carolina rejected it and passed the Nullification/South Carolina Ordinance, threatening secession. Jackson ignored the threat, created the Force Bill, and brought military troops to force compliance. Meanwhile, Henry Clay created the Compromise Tariff of 1833 and kept the nation intact. -
Texan Independence
Texas declared its independence when Texan settlers and revolutionaries, who were frustrated by years of escalating tensions with the Mexican government, especially their increased control revolted. During the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, Texan forces, led by General Sam Houston, defeated the Mexican army under General Antonio López de Santa Anna and won their independence. The Republic of Texas significantly expanded U.S. territory and set the stage for the annexation of Texas in 1845. -
Dred Scott Case
Scott was a slave but moved with his master to a free state. Scott believed he was free but his master said otherwise, bringing the case to the Supreme Court. The Taney Court ruled 7-2 that Scott was still a slave and did not have any rights, essentially stating that there was no such thing as free states. Additionally, the Missouri Compromise, which tried to limit slavery was deemed unconstitutional. Despite the Senate and Congress consisting of abolitionists, the Supreme Court's word was law. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
After Texas was annexed to the US, there were disputes over its border with Texans believing it was the Rio Grande and Mexicans thinking it was the Nueces River. As a result, there was a battle between Americans and Mexicans in the disputed territories, and President Polk declared war on Mexico. The Americans captured Mexico City and negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildago which allowed Mexico its capital, confirmed that the Texas border was the Rio Grande, and gave the US Mexican session. -
Seneca Falls Convention
In Seneca Falls, New York Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady, and Susan B. Anthony organized a women's rights meeting. They created the Declaration of Sentiments, a list of complaints and abuses women faced daily modeled after the Declaration of Independence, challenging traditional gender roles. During the 1800s, the women's suffrage movement gained a lot of steam due to the Second Great Awakening. In 1833, Oberland College opened, the first all-women college and other colleges became co-ed. -
Bleeding Kansas
After the North gained California in the Compromise of 1850, the South sought to secure Kansas. Both sides encouraged settlers, with the North offering religious and economic incentives. On voting day, pro-slavery "border ruffians" from Missouri prevented abolitionists from voting. The South won, but Northerners rejected the result, leading to violence and two competing governments. John Brown, believing God chose him to end slavery, violently murdered Kansas residents, adding to the chaos. -
Anaconda Plan
General Scott of the Union used total war and attacked the South's economy by making a naval blockade of the South's entire coast to prevent the South from trading or selling its cotton from manufactured goods. The plan was to conquer New Orleans and gain control of the entire Mississippi to surround the South and cut Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana off. After a series of incompetent generals, General Grant finally completed the Anaconda Plan in 1863 and along with Sherman, defeated the South. -
Emancipation Proclamation
Lincoln enacted the Emancipation Proclamation after the Battle of Antietam, shifting the war's motive from reuniting the nation to banning slavery. The Emancipation Proclamation allowed the border states to retain slavery, Northern states to remain free, and Confederate states to keep their slaves as long as they joined back to the Union. However, Lincoln knew the Confederacy would not oblige, so he said that after the Confederacy was captured, their slaves would be spoils of war and free. -
Battle of Gettysburg
Confederate General Lee abandoned his defensive war strategy and invaded the North successfully in the Battle of Chancellorsville. He continued toward Pennsylvania and wanted to scare Northerners into negotiating a peace treaty. General Meade faced off against Lee in Gettysburg. On the first day, 30,000 Confederates defeated 20,000 Yankees, but on the second day, 90,000 Yankees and 70,000 Confederates fought an even match. Finally, on the third day, the Union pushed Lee back into Virginia. -
The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction
Lincoln's 10% plan allowed any state to rejoin the Union once 10% of its voters swore loyalty and adopted new constitutions barring slavery. It also let any Confederate leader who agreed to emancipation and swore an oath to the Union and Constitution back into the Union. However, Radical Republicans thought Lincoln was not punishing the Confederates and drafted the Wade-Davis Bill, forcing 50% of state voters to swear loyalty and preventing Confederates from voting and holding political offices. -
Sherman's March to the Sea
General Grant's right-hand man, General Sherman capitalized on Grant's victory in Vicksburg and delivered the final blow to the Confederacy. Sherman waged total war on the Confederacy and led 60,000 soldiers on a 285-mile march from Atlanta to Savannah Georgia in an attempt to scare Confederate citizens into giving up the fight and surrendering to the Union. Along the way, Sherman's troops captured important cities, stole food and livestock, and burned down homes, making civilian life horrible. -
Johnson's Impeachment
Since Democrat President Johnson's vision for reconstruction differed from the Radical Republicans, who overrode his decisions with their supermajority, Johnson began firing Republicans. As a result, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act which said that Congress had to approve of Johnson's firings. However, Johnson ignored federal law and fired the Secretary of War, Edwin Staton, resulting in the House impeaching him and the Senate allowing him to stay in office, but without any power. -
14th Admendment
The Equal Protection Amendment declared that all people born in the US were citizens, granting countless slaves citizenship. It also allowed all naturalized people to be citizens. Since it was created by Radical Republicans, it banned former Confederate leaders from politics. It mandated that states protected everyone's rights, all who followed the same law, forbidding slave/black codes. It threatened that if states denied voting rights based on race, they would lose representation in Congress. -
Election of 1868
The first election after the Civil War easily replaced the disgraced Johnson with war hero Grant in the White House. Republican Grant continued pushing Reconstruction policies but white racist groups, notably the Ku Klux Klan, resisted his actions. Grant passed the Enforcement Act and the government's military could attack the Klan and suspend habeas corpus to protect white Republicans and blacks. Grant faced the Panic of 1873 and the economic depression drew the nation away from Reconstruction. -
Transcontinental Railroad
In the midst of the Civil War, the transcontinental railroad would link the nation and help Lincoln unify the country, mobilize Union troops and supplies, and allow citizens access to the West. To encourage quick completion, Lincoln passed the Pacific Railway Act of 1862 and hired two private companies, the Union Pacific and Central Pacific to compete against each other. Although the railroad greatly benefitted the whites moving westward, it unintentionally ruined the lives of the natives. -
Fifteenth Amendment
The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude and granted black men voting rights. However, Southern states retaliated by creating poll taxes which were too expensive for poor blacks, and literacy tests which targeted most blacks' lack of education. Additionally, groups banned together and used violence and intimidation to scare blacks from voting booths. The South continued the Jim Crow system and racial segregation. -
Civil Rights Act of 1875
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 banned racial segregation in public areas such as hotels, schools, restaurants, trains, and buses. However, it was not effectively enforced and after the removal of federal troops in 1877 by President Hayes, nearly disappeared. Additionally, the Supreme Court ruled in the Slaughter House Cases that the Fourteenth Amendment did not protect blacks' rights on a state level and that individual states could decide for themselves laws regarding civil rights for blacks. -
Election of 1876
In the election, Republican Hayes faced Democrat Tilden. When the votes were counted, every person in the South voted for Tilden, even the blacks and Republican whites, making the North suspicious of voting fraud. As a result, a recount was announced and the South accused the North of voting fraud, so the Compromise of 1877 was created, allowing Hayes to be president, but forcing out the federal military in the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and benefitting the South significantly.