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Manifest Destiny
The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent was used to justify territorial expansion. This ideology contributed to the annexation of Texas (1845), the Oregon Territory settlement with Britain, and the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), resulting in the U.S. acquisition of the Southwest (Boyer). -
Westward Expansion
Driven by the Homestead Act (1862), which offered 160 acres of land to settlers, and the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, Americans moved westward in large numbers. This expansion led to violent conflicts with Native American tribes, such as the Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) and events like the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) (Tindall Shi). -
The 13th Amendment
This amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States, effectively ending centuries of legalized human bondage. Its ratification came shortly after the Civil War and was a major victory for abolitionists (Foner, 2017). -
Reconstruction Era
his era aimed to rebuild the South and integrate millions of freed African Americans into society. Congress passed laws like the Reconstruction Acts, while African Americans made political gains (e.g., Hiram Revels becoming the first Black U.S. Senator). The era ended with the Compromise of 1877, in which Rutherford B. Hayes became president in exchange for removing federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction (Foner). -
The 14th Amendment
This amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved individuals. It established the principle of equal protection under the law (Kennedy Cohen, 2019). It was heavily referenced in later civil rights cases, such as Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the latter of which overturned legalized segregation in public schools (Brinkley). -
Growing Pains of Urbanization
Mass immigration and industrialization led to overcrowded cities. Tenement housing and unsanitary conditions were rampant, as seen in immigrant neighborhoods in New York City. Social reformers like Jane Addams and authors like Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives) exposed these issues, prompting municipal reforms (Zinn). -
Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business
Mass production and new technologies fueled economic growth. Industrialists like Andrew Carnegie (steel) and John D. Rockefeller (oil) created monopolies and trusts. The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) aimed to curb these abuses. Child labor, poor working conditions, and long hours led to the growth of labor unions such as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) (Kennedy Cohen). -
The Gilded Age
Coined by Mark Twain, this term describes an era of superficial prosperity marked by deep social inequality and political corruption. Political machines like Tammany Hall wielded enormous power, while business tycoons amassed wealth. Yet laborers and farmers struggled, prompting the rise of the Populist movement (Brinkley). -
The 15th Amendment
This amendment granted African American men the right to vote. It was a historic milestone in expanding democracy, even though discriminatory practices would later limit its effectiveness. -
The Great Railroad Strike
Triggered by wage cuts during an economic downturn, the strike paralyzed rail traffic nationwide. Violent clashes occurred in cities like Pittsburgh and Chicago. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent federal troops to suppress the unrest, revealing the government’s bias toward business interests over labor rights (American Yawp). -
Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy
During this era, the U.S. expanded its global influence, acquiring territories and projecting power abroad. I included this to highlight America’s emergence as a world power. -
The Progressive Movement
This period saw major social reforms. Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal targeted corporate abuses. Progressive women like Jane Addams fought for social justice, while muckrakers like Upton Sinclair exposed meatpacking industry horrors in The Jungle, leading to the Meat Inspection Act (1906) (Foner). -
Spanish-American War
This brief war led to the U.S. acquiring territories like the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The war was influenced by yellow journalism and public outcry over the sinking of the USS Maine. It marked the U.S.'s emergence as a global power (Kennedy Cohen). -
Americans and the Great War
U.S. entry into World War I followed German provocations. The Selective Service Act drafted millions. The home front saw women entering the workforce, and the Sedition Act (1918) curtailed free speech. The war ended with Wilson’s Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles, though the U.S. Senate rejected the League of Nations (Tindall Shi). -
World War I
The war devastated Europe and introduced new weapons like tanks and gas. The U.S. played a crucial role in the final Allied push. At home, the war catalyzed the Great Migration, where African Americans moved north for jobs (Foner). -
The Jazz Age
This cultural era included the Harlem Renaissance, with figures like Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington. Prohibition (18th Amendment) led to speakeasies and organized crime. Women gained the right to vote (19th Amendment), and youth culture flourished (Brinkley). -
The Great Depression
The stock market crash on Black Tuesday caused widespread economic collapse. Banks failed, unemployment soared, and homeless encampments (“Hoovervilles”) sprang up. The federal government’s lack of response under President Hoover deepened the crisis (Zinn). -
FDR’s Brain Trust
This group of advisors, including economists and professors, crafted New Deal legislation. Their ideas led to reforms like the Glass-Steagall Act (banking regulation) and National Industrial Recovery Act. Frances Perkins, the first female Cabinet member, served as Secretary of Labor (American Yawp). -
World War II
Following Pearl Harbor, the U.S. mobilized for global war. The home front saw rationing, war bonds, and internment of Japanese Americans. Women joined the workforce, and the Manhattan Project developed atomic weapons. The war ended after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Kennedy Cohen). -
Civil Rights Movement
Landmark events included the Little Rock Nine (1957), the Freedom Rides (1961), and the March on Washington (1963). MLK Jr.'s leadership and the passage of the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) reshaped American democracy (Foner).