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After Napoleon's defeat, the German Confederation was established, a loose alliance of 39 German states under the influence of Austria and Prussia. -
After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna restored Austria's control over much of Italy, dividing the peninsula into several states, hindering unification. -
Giuseppe Mazzini, a key nationalist leader, founded Young Italy, promoting the idea of a unified, republican Italy through revolutionary means. -
Prussia initiated a customs union among several German states, facilitating trade and strengthening its economic leadership. -
Triggered by China's efforts to suppress the opium trade. Ended with the Treaty of Nanjing, ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening five treaty ports -
Marked the start of unequal treaties, granting Britain significant trading privileges and extraterritorial rights -
Liberal movements sought German unification under a constitutional monarchy, but they failed due to Austrian opposition and King Frederick William IV of Prussia's refusal to accept the German crown. -
Camillo di Cavour, a skilled statesman, became prime minister and began modernizing the economy and military, laying the groundwork for unification. -
Resulted in the Treaty of Tianjin (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), expanding foreign access to Chinese territory and legalizing missionary activity -
This was the first major uprising against British rule, led by Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army.
The rebellion, though unsuccessful, planted the seeds for future resistance movements. -
The Treaty of Tianjin opened ten new ports, allowing foreign settlements and greater commercial access. -
Piedmont-Sardinia, allied with France, fought Austria. After victories at Magenta and Solferino, Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont, marking a key step in unification. -
A plebiscite held in 1860 determined the incorporation of the states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany into the kingdom of Sardinia (base of the future Italy). -
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his "Redshirts" landed in Sicily, overthrew the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and later handed control to King Victor Emmanuel II. -
Victor Emmanuel II was declared the first king of a unified Italy, although Rome and Venice were still outside its control. -
King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Prime Minister, who adopted a policy of "blood and iron" to achieve unification under Prussian rule. -
Robert Hart reorganized China’s maritime customs service, effectively placing it under British management -
Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, gaining territory and strengthening Prussia’s position. -
Prussia defeated Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz, expelling Austria from German affairs and establishing the North German Confederation under Prussian control. -
To achieve the incorporation of Venice, Victor Emmanuel II entered into an alliance with Prussia, Austria's rival. Once the conflict arose, the victory favored Prussia; nation that then forced Austria to return Venice to Italy. -
Led by Prussia, this confederation unified the northern German states into a political and military alliance under Bismarck’s leadership. -
Bismarck manipulated the Ems Telegram to provoke France. Napoleon III declared war on Prussia, uniting the German states against a common enemy. -
After victory over France, Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany at the Palace of Versailles, finalizing unification. -
A peace treaty was signed between France and Germany, with Alsace and Lorraine annexed by Germany, marking the birth of the Second Reich under Prussian dominance. -
The incorporation of Rome in 1870 marked the final step in Italian unification. After French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian War, Rome was left unprotected. On September 20, 1870, Italian forces breached Porta Pia and took the city with little resistance. A plebiscite on October 2 confirmed Rome’s annexation to Italy. In July 1871, Rome became the official capital though tensions with the Papacy persisted until 1929. -
The Berlin Conference is held, where the main European powers agree on the division of Africa among themselves, without the participation of any African nations. -
France established control over Vietnam, ending China's historical suzerainty over the region and weakening its influence in Southeast Asia -
King Leopold II of Belgium creates the Congo Free State, a personal colony, which brutally exploits the local population. -
The INC was established as a platform for political dialogue among Indians. -
Italy attempts to colonize Ethiopia, but a conflict ensues, culminating in the Ethiopian victory at the Battle of Adwa (1896), preventing Ethiopia from being colonized. -
Western powers and Japan carved out spheres of influence in China, building railways, opening mines, and asserting economic control -
Germany and Great Britain sign an agreement defining their spheres of influence in East Africa and South Africa, delineating their colonial territories. -
China’s defeat led to the Treaty of Shimonoseki, ceding Taiwan to Japan and recognizing Korean independence, further diminishing Chinese sovereignty -
A confrontation between France and Great Britain in the town of Fashoda, Sudan, marks the end of French imperial expansion in Africa. -
A violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising that led to a coalition of foreign forces occupying Beijing and imposing a crippling indemnity on China -
The British divided Bengal along religious lines, sparking widespread protests. This led to the Swadeshi Movement, urging Indians to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries. -
A conflict between Boer settlers (Afrikaners) and the British Empire in South Africa, which ends with a British victory and the establishment of the Union of South Africa under British control. -
The Union of South Africa is established, unifying the British colonies of Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and the Orange Free State under British control. -
The culmination of internal decay and relentless foreign pressure, leading to the collapse of imperial rule and the establishment of the Republic of China -
During World War I, the colonial powers fight for control of African colonies, leading to the redistribution of some territories among European powers after the war. -
British troops, under General Dyer, fired on unarmed protesters in Amritsar, killing hundreds. The brutality of the event led to a surge in nationalist sentiment and a shift towards mass movements. -
Led by Mahatma Gandhi, this movement encouraged Indians to boycott British institutions, goods, and services. -
After World War I, the League of Nations establishes the mandate system, where some African regions previously controlled by Germany are distributed between Britain and France. -
By this Treaty, the existence of the small Vatican State (State that is within the city of Rome) was recognized and the Pope was also recognized as its sovereign. -
Gandhi marched 240 miles to the Arabian Sea to protest the British salt monopoly. This symbolic act inspired nationwide civil disobedience. -
Gandhi called for an immediate end to British rule with the slogan "Do or Die." The British responded with mass arrests, but the movement demonstrated India's determination for freedom. -
The Muslim League declared Direct Action Day, leading to violent Hindu-Muslim riots. This heightened tensions and ultimately led to the partition of India. -
The British passed the Indian Independence Act, dividing British India into India and Pakistan.
Massive violence and displacement followed, with over a million people killed in communal riots. -
India officially became an independent nation, with Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister. -
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, most African nations gain independence, marking the end of European colonization on the continent