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Congress of Vienna (Ger)
After Napoleon's defeat, the German Confederation was established, a loose alliance of 39 German states under the influence of Austria and Prussia. -
Congress of Vienna (Ita)
After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna restored Austria's control over much of Italy, dividing the peninsula into several states, hindering unification. -
Mazzini Founds "Young Italy" (Ita)
Giuseppe Mazzini, a key nationalist leader, founded Young Italy, promoting the idea of a unified, republican Italy through revolutionary means. -
Creation of the Zollverein (Ger)
Prussia initiated a customs union among several German states, facilitating trade and strengthening its economic leadership. -
The First Opium War (Chi)
Triggered by China's efforts to suppress the opium trade. Ended with the Treaty of Nanjing, ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening five treaty ports -
The Treaty of Nanjing (Chi)
Marked the start of unequal treaties, granting Britain significant trading privileges and extraterritorial rights -
Revolutions of 1848 and Frankfurt Parliament (Ger)
Liberal movements sought German unification under a constitutional monarchy, but they failed due to Austrian opposition and King Frederick William IV of Prussia's refusal to accept the German crown. -
Cavour Becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia (Ita)
Camillo di Cavour, a skilled statesman, became prime minister and began modernizing the economy and military, laying the groundwork for unification. -
The Second Opium War (Chi)
Resulted in the Treaty of Tianjin (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), expanding foreign access to Chinese territory and legalizing missionary activity -
The First War of Independence (Sepoy Mutiny) (Ind)
This was the first major uprising against British rule, led by Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army.
The rebellion, though unsuccessful, planted the seeds for future resistance movements. -
Expansion of Treaty Ports (Chi)
The Treaty of Tianjin opened ten new ports, allowing foreign settlements and greater commercial access. -
War against Austria and incorporation of Lombardy (Ita)
Piedmont-Sardinia, allied with France, fought Austria. After victories at Magenta and Solferino, Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont, marking a key step in unification. -
Annexation of the States of Parma, Modena and Tuscany (Ita)
A plebiscite held in 1860 determined the incorporation of the states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany into the kingdom of Sardinia (base of the future Italy). -
The revolution of the two Sicilies (Ita)
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his "Redshirts" landed in Sicily, overthrew the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and later handed control to King Victor Emmanuel II. -
Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (Ita)
Victor Emmanuel II was declared the first king of a unified Italy, although Rome and Venice were still outside its control. -
Otto von Bismarck Appointed Chancellor of Prussia (Ger)
King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Prime Minister, who adopted a policy of "blood and iron" to achieve unification under Prussian rule. -
Foreign Control of Customs (Chi)
Robert Hart reorganized China’s maritime customs service, effectively placing it under British management -
Second Schleswig War (Ger)
Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, gaining territory and strengthening Prussia’s position. -
Austro-Prussian War (Ger)
Prussia defeated Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz, expelling Austria from German affairs and establishing the North German Confederation under Prussian control. -
Incorporation of Venice (Ita)
To achieve the incorporation of Venice, Victor Emmanuel II entered into an alliance with Prussia, Austria's rival. Once the conflict arose, the victory favored Prussia; nation that then forced Austria to return Venice to Italy. -
Creation of the North German Confederation (Ger)
Led by Prussia, this confederation unified the northern German states into a political and military alliance under Bismarck’s leadership. -
Ems Telegram and Franco-Prussian War (Ger)
Bismarck manipulated the Ems Telegram to provoke France. Napoleon III declared war on Prussia, uniting the German states against a common enemy. -
Proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles (Ger)
After victory over France, Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of Germany at the Palace of Versailles, finalizing unification. -
Treaty of Frankfurt (Ger)
A peace treaty was signed between France and Germany, with Alsace and Lorraine annexed by Germany, marking the birth of the Second Reich under Prussian dominance. -
Incorporation of Rome (Ita)
The incorporation of Rome in 1870 marked the final step in Italian unification. After French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian War, Rome was left unprotected. On September 20, 1870, Italian forces breached Porta Pia and took the city with little resistance. A plebiscite on October 2 confirmed Rome’s annexation to Italy. In July 1871, Rome became the official capital though tensions with the Papacy persisted until 1929. -
Berlin Conference (Afr)
The Berlin Conference is held, where the main European powers agree on the division of Africa among themselves, without the participation of any African nations. -
The Sino-French War (Chi)
France established control over Vietnam, ending China's historical suzerainty over the region and weakening its influence in Southeast Asia -
Establishment of the Congo Free State (Afr)
King Leopold II of Belgium creates the Congo Free State, a personal colony, which brutally exploits the local population. -
Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) (Ind)
The INC was established as a platform for political dialogue among Indians. -
Treaty of Wuchale (Ethiopia and Italy) (Afr)
Italy attempts to colonize Ethiopia, but a conflict ensues, culminating in the Ethiopian victory at the Battle of Adwa (1896), preventing Ethiopia from being colonized. -
The "Scramble for Concessions" (Chi)
Western powers and Japan carved out spheres of influence in China, building railways, opening mines, and asserting economic control -
Anglo-German Agreement (Afr)
Germany and Great Britain sign an agreement defining their spheres of influence in East Africa and South Africa, delineating their colonial territories. -
The Sino-Japanese War (Chi)
China’s defeat led to the Treaty of Shimonoseki, ceding Taiwan to Japan and recognizing Korean independence, further diminishing Chinese sovereignty -
Fashoda Incident (Afr)
A confrontation between France and Great Britain in the town of Fashoda, Sudan, marks the end of French imperial expansion in Africa. -
The Boxer Rebellion and Its Aftermath (Chi)
A violent anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising that led to a coalition of foreign forces occupying Beijing and imposing a crippling indemnity on China -
Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement (Ind)
The British divided Bengal along religious lines, sparking widespread protests. This led to the Swadeshi Movement, urging Indians to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries. -
Boer War (Afr)
A conflict between Boer settlers (Afrikaners) and the British Empire in South Africa, which ends with a British victory and the establishment of the Union of South Africa under British control. -
Creation of the Union of South Africa (Afr)
The Union of South Africa is established, unifying the British colonies of Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and the Orange Free State under British control. -
The Fall of the Qing Dynasty (Chi)
The culmination of internal decay and relentless foreign pressure, leading to the collapse of imperial rule and the establishment of the Republic of China -
World War I (Afr)
During World War I, the colonial powers fight for control of African colonies, leading to the redistribution of some territories among European powers after the war. -
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Ind)
British troops, under General Dyer, fired on unarmed protesters in Amritsar, killing hundreds. The brutality of the event led to a surge in nationalist sentiment and a shift towards mass movements. -
Non-Cooperation Movement (Ind)
Led by Mahatma Gandhi, this movement encouraged Indians to boycott British institutions, goods, and services. -
League of Nations Mandates (Afr)
After World War I, the League of Nations establishes the mandate system, where some African regions previously controlled by Germany are distributed between Britain and France. -
The Lateran Treaty (Ita)
By this Treaty, the existence of the small Vatican State (State that is within the city of Rome) was recognized and the Pope was also recognized as its sovereign. -
Salt March (Dandi March) and Civil Disobedience Movement (Ind)
Gandhi marched 240 miles to the Arabian Sea to protest the British salt monopoly. This symbolic act inspired nationwide civil disobedience. -
Quit India Movement (Ind)
Gandhi called for an immediate end to British rule with the slogan "Do or Die." The British responded with mass arrests, but the movement demonstrated India's determination for freedom. -
Direct Action Day & Communal Riots (Ind)
The Muslim League declared Direct Action Day, leading to violent Hindu-Muslim riots. This heightened tensions and ultimately led to the partition of India. -
Indian Independence Act & Partition (Ind)
The British passed the Indian Independence Act, dividing British India into India and Pakistan.
Massive violence and displacement followed, with over a million people killed in communal riots. -
India Gains Independence (Ind)
India officially became an independent nation, with Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister. -
Decolonization (Afr)
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, most African nations gain independence, marking the end of European colonization on the continent