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During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), sea levels dropped significantly due to the accumulation of ice. This exposed the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia), connecting modern-day Siberia and Alaska. -
Paleo-Indians, the ancestors of Native Americans, began migrating from Siberia into Beringia. They followed herds of large animals, such as mammoths, bison, and caribou, as the harsh ice age climate pushed them into new regions. -
The ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets opens. This allowed the first migrants to enter the interior of North America. Some groups may have also taken a coastal route along the Pacific, hunting sea mammals and fishing. -
Transition to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Evidence of early settlements and use of tools. -
Aridoamérica: Nomadic societies, early human
settlement in desert regions. -
With the end of the Ice Age, global temperatures rose, and sea levels increased. This submerged the Bering Land Bridge, cutting off direct migration between Asia and North America. However, human populations were now widely dispersed across both continents.
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Maize cultivation begins, marking the development of agriculture and the foundation of Mesoamerican civilizations. -
The Olmecs, considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, establish cities like San Lorenzo and La Venta. They create monumental stone heads and develop early writing and calendar systems. -
Other regional cultures like the Zapotecs (Monte Albán) and Maya begin to rise. -
Olmec culture spreads across Mesoamerica, influencing later civilizations. -
Maya city-states such as Tikal and Palenque thrive, with advances in astronomy, mathematics, and writing. -
The massive city of Teotihuacan, with the Pyramid of the Sun and Moon, becomes a major cultural and economic hub. -
Internal unrest and external pressures contribute to its fall, but its influence persists.
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The Toltecs establish their capital at Tula, known for its warrior statues and influence over central Mexico. -
The Mexica (later known as the Aztecs) establish their capital city on an island in Lake Texcoco. -
The alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan begins Aztec dominance in central Mexico. -
The Aztec Empire reaches its height under Moctezuma II, but internal tensions grow. -
Hernán Cortés sets sail from Cuba with about 600 men, 11 ships, horses, and artillery. -
Cortés reaches the coast near modern-day Veracruz. He allies with the Totonacs, a group discontent with Aztec rule. -
Cortés lands in Cozumel, rescues Spanish castaway Jerónimo de Aguilar (who becomes his interpreter), and begins learning about the region. -
The survivors regroup in Tlaxcala, where they plan a counterattack with their indigenous allies. -
Cortés and his forces are welcomed into the Aztec capital by Emperor Moctezuma II. Tensions simmer as the Spanish demand gold and exert influence over Moctezuma. -
The disease, brought by the Spanish, spreads rapidly in Tenochtitlan, killing thousands, including the new emperor, Cuitláhuac. -
During a religious festival, Spanish forces, led by Pedro de Alvarado, slaughter unarmed Aztec nobles, sparking rebellion. -
Moctezuma is either killed by the Spanish or by his own people for being a perceived traitor.
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Spanish forces attempt to flee Tenochtitlan but are ambushed by the Aztecs. Many Spaniards and their allies are killed. -
Cortés and his forces, with tens of thousands of Tlaxcalan allies, lay siege to the Aztec capital. They cut off supplies and water to the city. -
After months of fighting, the Aztecs, led by Emperor Cuauhtémoc, surrender to the Spanish. The city is left in ruins. -
The Spanish rebuild Tenochtitlan as Mexico City, the capital of New Spain.