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Disputes occasionally resulted in full-scale conflict like the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War, caused when its ruler converted to Calvinism. -
When the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, both Lutherans and Calvinists sought re-confirmation of the Augsburg settlement. In return, the Habsburg heir Archduke Ferdinand required the immediate restoration of any property taken from the Catholic Church since 1555, rather than the previous practice whereby each case was assessed separately. By threatening all Protestants, his demand paralysed the diet, and removed the perception of imperial neutrality. -
Another option was Frederick V, Elector Palatine, a Calvinist who in 1613 married Elizabeth daughter of James I. When Ferdinand was elected king of Bohemia in 1617, he also gained control of its electoral vote, but his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the mostly Protestant Bohemian nobility, who were also concerned about the erosion of their rights. Since the seven electors currently consisted of three Protestants and four Catholics, starting the Bohemian Revolt -
Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy within them. Less than 18 months after taking control of Styria in 1595, he had eliminated Protestantism in what had been a stronghold of the Reformation
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By abandoning Frederick, the German princes had hoped to restrict the dispute to Bohemia, but this was thwarted by Maximilian's dynastic ambitions. In the October 1619 Treaty of Munich, Ferdinand transferred the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria.
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With Saxony dominating the Upper Saxon Circle and Brandenburg the Lower, both kreise remained neutral in the early stages. However, Frederick's deposition in 1623 united the Lutheran John Georgeand Calvinist George William, Elector of Brandenburg, who became concerned Ferdinand intended to reclaim formerly Catholic bishoprics now held by Protestants. These fears seemed confirmed in early 1625 when Tilly returned to the Catholic church properties in which had been Protestant since 1566.
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From 1626 to 1629, Gustavus was engaged in a war with Poland–Lithuania, ruled by his Catholic cousin Sigismund, who also claimed the Swedish throne and was backed by Ferdinand II. Once this conflict ended, and with only a few minor states like Hesse-Kassel still openly opposing Ferdinand, Gustavus became an obvious ally for Richelieu.
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By triggering direct French intervention, Nördlingen expanded the conflict rather than ending it. Richelieu provided the Swedes with new subsidies, hired mercenaries led by Bernard of Saxe-Weimar for an offensive in the Rhineland, and in May 1635 initiated the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659). A few days later, the German states and Ferdinand agreed to the Peace of Prague.
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The Battle of Prague, which occurred between 25 July and 1 November 1648 was the last action of the Thirty Years' War. While the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia were proceeding, Sweden took the opportunity to mount one last campaign into Bohemia. The main result, and probably the main aim, was to loot the fabulous art collection assembled in Prague Castle by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552–1612), the pick of which was taken down the Elbe in barges and shipped to Sweden.
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The final Peace of Westphalia consisted of three separate agreements. These were the Peace of Münster between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the Treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, and the Treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. The Peace was denounced by Pope Innocent X, who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church
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The Thirty Years' War is part of what historians sometimes call "The General Crisis" of the mid-17th century, a period of sustained conflict and unrest in areas ranging from Ming China to the British Isles, Tsarist Russia and the Holy Roman Empire. In each of these, fighting combined with famine and disease to inflict severe losses on local civilian populations. 50% of the German population was wiped out. And this war is called the most destructive war in European history.
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The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into a centralised state similar to Spain. Over the next 50 years, Bavaria, Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony and others increasingly pursued their own policies, while Sweden gained a permanent foothold in the Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Habsburg lands suffered less from the war than many others. -
Innovations made by Gustavus in particular are considered part of the evolution known as the "Military Revolution", although whether tactics or technology were at the heart of these changes is still debated. Introduced by Maurice of Orange in the 1590s, these sought to increase infantry firepower by moving from massed columns to line formation.
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After the Thirty Years' War, ending in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), France emerged as the dominant European power, Spain's power waned significantly, and Sweden became a major force in Northern Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was effectively dissolved, granting its member states sovereignty and ending the idea of a unified Catholic empire.