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A cultural movement that began in Italy and spread across Europe. It revived classical Greek and Roman ideas, emphasized humanism, art, science, and individual achievement. Great artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael flourished.
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The dome was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi after a competition in 1418.
tour.florence.it Construction of the dome spanned roughly from 1420 to 1436. The cathedral itself had its origins earlier (the original structure started in 1296 under Arnolfo di Cambio) and the dome solved the problem of covering a very large crossing. -
The Virgin Mary, young, beautiful, and pious, her garments flowing in numerous folds, holds the dead Christ, who, intentionally, appears older than his mother. The serene triangular composition, full of tenderness, conveys the grief of a mother seeing her dead son in her arms. The Virgin Mary's youth exemplifies Renaissance idealism: it represents the ideal of beauty and youth, an eternally young and beautiful mother. -
Raphael painted this large fresco in the Vatican’s Stanza della Segnatura around 1509 11 it depicts a gathering of philosophers, notably Plato and Aristotle at the center. Why it matters It symbolizes the revival of classical learnig within the Renaissance, balancing art, architecture and intellectual themes. -
Carlos I ruled Spain, Germany, Italy, and America.
He wanted to keep Europe united under Catholicism, but the Protestant Reformation started.
He fought against Martin Luther’s followers and also against France and the Ottoman Empire. -
People in Castilla (Spain) protested against Carlos I because:
He used too much money for wars.
He gave power to foreign nobles.
He didn’t listen to local people.
They created their own army, but were defeated in the Battle of Villalar (1521). -
What happened in 25 September 1555, the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognized the principle cuius regio, eius religio meaning the ruler of a territory that determine its religion Why it matters: It marked a major shift in European religious politics: legal recognition for Lutheranism alongside Catholicism; though it excluded other Protestant groups so tensions has created -
Felipe II was the son of Carlos I.
He ruled during Spain’s Golden Age (Siglo de Oro).
He built El Escorial, a big monastery and palace.
He fought many wars:
Against the Ottoman Empire
Against England (Armada, 1588Against the Netherlands (Eighty Years’ War)
He defended the Catholic Church and was very serious and religious. -
The Moriscos (Muslims forced to become Christian) in Granada rebelled against the king.
They were angry because they lost their language, culture, and religion.
The Spanish army defeated them, and many were killed or expelled. -
This war was between Spain and the Netherlands.
The north (Protestant) wanted freedom from Spain (Catholic).
It lasted 80 years until the Peace of Westphalia (1648).
The Netherlands became independent. Spain lost part of its empire and started to decline. -
On 6 January 1579 an alliance of southern provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands signed the Union of Arras, expressing loyalty to the Spanish Crown and defending Catholic faith.
It represented a break between the Catholic southern provinces and the Protestant-rebelling northern provinces; it preluded the later split of the Netherlands. -
On 23 January 1579 the northern provinces of the Netherlands signed the Union of Utrecht to resist Spanish rule and to defend their rights it became the legal basis for the later Dutch Republic.
Why it matters: It laid the foundation for the emergence of the United Provincesmarking a major political change in Europe. -
What happened In 1588 the Spanish Invincible Armada under King Philip II attempted to invade England; the English used tactics and favourable conditions and defeated it.
It marked a turning point England affirmed itself as a major naval power, Spain’s dominance was shaken, and the threat of Spanish invasion receded. -
Baroque art appeared after the Renaissance.
It was full of emotion, movement, light, and shadow.
The Catholic Church used it to show its power and to make people feel amazed.
Kings also used Baroque style to show their wealth and authority. -
Between 1622-1625 Bernini created this marble sculpture depicting the myth from Ovid’s Metamorphoses Apollo chasing Daphne, who transforms into a laurel tree to escape him.
Galerie Borghès
It is a masterpiece of Baroque sculpture: full of motion, emotional drama, skillful treatment of marble and a landmark work in 17 century art. -
Beginning in 1656, Pope Alexander VII commissioned Bernini to redesign the piazza in front of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome; the colonnades and elliptical space were completed around 1667.
The space became a symbol of the Catholic Church’s outreach and grandeur; architecturally it exemplifies Baroque ideals (grand scale, movement, theatricality) and has become one of the world’s most famous public squares. -
Around 1657, Velázquez painted The Spinners , which shows women working in a tapestry workshop but is also interpreted as referencing Ovid’s myth of Arachne.
This work is one of Velázquez’s late masterpieces: it blends everyday scene with mythic reference, shows mastery of light and composition, and is highly regarded in Spanish Golden Age painting. -
After the Baroque, people wanted art that was calm, simple, and rational.
They looked again at ancient Greek and Roman art.
Neoclassical artists painted stories of heroes, virtue, and discipline.
It was also the time of the French Revolution, so art showed patriotism and reason. -
Oath of the Horatii is a large painting by the French artist Jacques-Louis David painted in 1784 and 1785 and now on display in the Louvre in Paris. The painting immediately became a huge success with critics and the public and remains one of the bestknown paintings in the Neoclassical style. -
Goya began working on the sketches—of which the Prado Museum holds five—in the spring of 1800. He painted the final version between July 1800 and June 1801, sending the invoice in December 1801. It belonged to the private collections of the Royal Palace of Madrid, where it appears in the inventory of 1814. It became part of the newly founded Prado Museum in 1824, by order of King Ferdinand VII, who is portrayed in the painting.