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Beginning of the Estates General
King Louis XVI convened the Estates General to address France’s financial crisis, but it led to demands for political reform and the formation of the National Assembly. -
Storming of the Bastille
A revolutionary crowd stormed the Bastille prison in Paris, symbolizing the start of the French Revolution and the fall of absolute monarchy. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
A fundamental document of the Revolution that proclaimed liberty, equality, and fraternity as the rights of all men. -
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Citizen
Written by Olympe de Gouges, it argued that women should have the same rights as men, challenging the gender inequalities of the time. -
Execution of Louis XVI
King Louis XVI was found guilty of treason and executed by guillotine, ending the monarchy. -
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The Terror
A period of extreme violence during the Revolution where thousands, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed by guillotine under Robespierre’s rule. -
Coup d'État of Thermidor
Robespierre was arrested and executed, marking the end of the Reign of Terror and a shift toward a more moderate government. -
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The Directory
A five-member governing body that ruled France after the fall of Robespierre but was unstable and eventually overthrown by Napoleon. -
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The Consulate
The government established after Napoleon’s coup, with him as First Consul, leading to his eventual declaration as Emperor. -
Coup d'État of Brumaire
Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate, effectively ending the French Revolution. -
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The Empire
Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France and expanded his rule across Europe before his eventual downfall. -
Battle of Austerlitz
One of Napoleon’s greatest victories, where he defeated Russian and Austrian forces, securing his dominance in Europe. -
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Exile in Elba
After his defeat, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba but managed to escape and return to power in France for the Hundred Days. -
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Congress of Viena
The great powers redefined Europe's borders after Napoleon. -
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Louis XVIII, king of France
Louis XVIII restored the Bourbon monarchy after Napoleon's exile. -
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Exile in St. Helena
Napoleon was sent to the remote island of St. Helena, where he spent the rest of his life in captivity. -
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon’s final defeat against the British and Prussian forces, leading to his second exile. -
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Spanish Liberal Biennium
A period of liberal reforms in Spain, cut short by foreign intervention. -
Death of Napoleon
Napoleon died in exile on St. Helena, likely from stomach cancer, though some theories suggest poisoning. -
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Charles X, king of France
Charles X's conservative rule ended with the July Revolution. -
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Reign of Louis Philippe (France)
He lost power after a revolution. -
Independence of Greece
Greece gained independence after a war against the Ottoman Empire. -
Independence of Belgium
Belgium declared independence from the Netherlands after revolution. -
Zollverein
It was a German customs union. -
Revolution of 1848, the Spring of Nations
Many European countries had uprisings. -
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France Second Republic
The Second Republic was created after the 1848 Revolution, but it was short-lived. -
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France’s Second Empire (Napoleon III)
Napoleon III became Emperor. -
Battle of Magenta
France and Sardinia won against Austria. -
Battle of Solferino
Another key battle for Italian unification. -
Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
He helped unite southern Italy. -
Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed King of Italy
Italy became one country. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria fought Denmark. -
Austrian-Prussian War
Prussia defeated Austria in 7 weeks. -
French Prussian War
France and Prussia went to war. -
Wilhelm I crowned Kaiser of the Second German Reich
Germany became an empire.