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In the book, Copernicus described his Copernican Theory. He argued that the stars were at rest relative to the Earth, the universe was of a staggering size and that the solar system did not rotate around the Earth. By publishing his wory, Copernicus argued against the theories set out by Ptolemy and Aristotle, which "science" at the time was based off of.
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Galileo argued that controlled experiments should be used to find out what actually did occur. This contrasted with earlier beliefs that argued that speculation could be used.
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This contradicted even Copernicus's teachings, who argued that the planets circled the sun .
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In the book, Galileo argued that the "heavenly spheres" were not in fact perfect. Rather, it was full of craters and imperfections. This directly contradicted with the teachings of the Catholic Church, which argued that the planets were Celestial Spheres pushed by angels.
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This demonstrates that Catholic reaction to C0pernicus was less severe than that of Protestants because it took them over eighty years to denounce his works.
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Galileo is tried by the Catholic CHurch after publishing Chief Systems of the World, which attacked the traditional views of Aristotle. He was tried for heresy by the Papal Inquisition and forced to recant his views under the threat of torture.
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This demonstrated that the acceptance of science was becoming more widespread.
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The book, written by Bernard de Fontenelle, described a couple celebrating the death of myth and the growth of knowledge and the human mind during the Enlightenment. This work is mainly significant because it helped bring science into conflict with religion.
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Newton described many important concepts in his work that are still a major component of modern pysics. He demonstrates that every body in the universe is attracted to every other body in his law of universal gravitation. He also published his three laws, which describe motion.
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In the book, John Locke argued that all ideas are derived from experiance. In addition, he stated that the human brain was like an empty cabinet upon birth (tabula rasa) and that it was filled with ideas as time went on. This is significant because it argued that human developement is dependent on social institutions such as schools.
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The Dictionary, written by Pierre Bayle, argued that human beliefs had been widely varied and often mistaken. It was generally outlawed in Europe, but still found in more homes than any other book. It is significant because it demonstrates a general belief in skepticism.
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Louis XV was criticized for ruling like a tyrant. He abolished the Paris courts, claiming divine right. This in turn led to him being lampooned all across France. This deprived him of the divine right image, opening up to even more attacks.
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Voltaire is attacked by a powerful French nobel after insulting him. The event encourages Voltaire to stand up against legal injustice and unequal treatement before the law.
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Frederick spent most of his reign saving Prussia from destruction. He led his army well during the Seven Year's War and prevented Prussia from being divided. He was often considered an enlightened monarch because of his policies of simplifying the legal system and abloishing torture. He was not truly enlightened though. He condemed serfdom in the abstract, but did not even free the serfs on his own estate.
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Theresa, Queen of Austria, introduced many serious reforms. She attempted to limit the papacy's influence in Austria, reform the bureaucracy and revamp the tax system so the nobles would pay a just tax. She also partially freed the serfs.
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The work, written by Voltaire, portrayed Louis XIV as a dignified leader. It is significant because it demonstrated that Voltaire believed the best government that could be hoped for was a good monarch.
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The work, written by Montesquieu, focused on governments such as republics and monarchies. In it, he argued that liberty could be protected from despots by a seperation of power and that a strong upper class was needed to prevent an abuse of power. He also argued that strong courts could preven tyranny. His work is significant because it was often the inspiration of works such as the American and French Constitutions.
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The minister ordered a universal income tax of 5% on all citizens to help pay off debts incrued during the War of Austrian Succession. This resulted in universal protests and the tax was dropped in 1764.
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The encyclopedia, written by Diderot, attempted to document the rapidly growing amount of human knowledge. Many of the articles were daring and original, which caused the encyclopedia to be banned throughout Europe. It is significant because it summed up the worldview of the Enlightenment.
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The work, written by Rousseau, argued that the common interest of the poeple (the general will) is sacred and absolute. The general will does not require majority rule, however. Rather, it may require wise rulers to make good decisions that go against the wishes of the majority. This belief was used by both democrats in the 1780d and dictators throughout history.
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Catherine came to power in a military coup. She attempted to reform Russia by importing Western culture, reforming the legal code and expand Russian territory. She did not end serfdom though. In fact, she often awarded estates with serfs to her followers.
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Joseph II, who ruled alongisde his mother until her death, granted religous tolerance to Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom in 1781. The fact that he abolosihed serfdom demonstrates that he may have been more enlightened than other leaders of the time.
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This demonstrates that Catherine the Great's efforts to reform and simplify the law codes were genuine.
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The book, by Paul D'Holbach, argued that human beings were little more than machines because they lacked free will. This work demonstrates that the later Enlightenment philosophers became increasingly extreme.
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Poland was divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria. THis demonstrates the success of Catherine the Great's expansionist policies.
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Emelian Pugachev, a Russian Cossack, proclaimed himself the true tsar of Russia and abolished serfdom. Thousands joined his cause, but his rebellion was eventually ended by the overwhelming might of the Russian army. The event is significant because it encouraged Catherine the Great to do nothing to stop serfdom. In fact, she expanded it into the Ukraine and serfdom entered its most oppresive phase.
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Louis XVI reinstated the Paris courts and many philosophers believed he would make the Frwench government more representative. This did not occur because the Paris courts, claiming tp speak for all of the Frecnh people, opposed the kings efforts. King XVI was executed during the French Revolution.
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Immanuel Kant argued that the best way to give serious thinkers freedom of exercise was to allow them to publish their ideas without constraint. He argued that Frederick the Great of Prussia was an enlightened monarch because he allowed freedom of the press.
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This measure, passed by Joseph II, was universally opposed by peasants and nobles alike. The peasants opposed it because they were lacking in money.
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Leopold II of Austria undid many of the reforms of his predecessors. He also reinstated serfdom.
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The book, written by Condorcet, argued that humans had lived through nine stages of development and that they were about to enter the tenth.