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In May 1789, King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to address the financial crisis, which ultimately led to the formation of the National Assembly and the start of revolutionary actions. -
On July 14, 1789, Parisian revolutionaries stormed the Bastille prison, symbolizing the start of the French Revolution. It marked the fall of royal authority and the rise of popular movements. -
On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly adopted this document, declaring the natural rights of man, including liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. -
In 1791, Olympe de Gouges published this document advocating for gender equality and women's rights, asserting that women should have the same rights as men in the revolution. -
King Louis XVI was tried and found guilty of treason, and on January 21, 1793, he was executed by guillotine, marking the end of the monarchy in France. -
From September 1793 to July 1794, the Revolutionary government, led by Robespierre, executed thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution, creating a period of extreme violence and fear. -
In July 1794, a faction within the revolutionaries overthrew Robespierre, ending the Reign of Terror. Robespierre was arrested and executed, signaling the collapse of his radical leadership. -
From 1795 to 1799, France was governed by a five-member Directory, characterized by corruption, instability, and ineffective leadership, which eventually led to its overthrow by Napoleon. -
From 1804 to 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte ruled France as Emperor, establishing an empire that expanded across much of Europe before collapsing due to military defeats. -
On November 9, 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup, overthrowing the Directory government and establishing the Consulate, with Napoleon as First Consul, marking the end of the French Revolution. -
After the coup of Brumaire, Napoleon established the Consulate, where he held supreme power as First Consul. It lasted until 1804 when Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France. -
On December 2, 1805, Napoleon's forces decisively defeated the Russian and Austrian armies at Austerlitz, one of his greatest victories, solidifying his dominance over Europe. -
After his defeat in 1814, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, where he was given sovereignty but remained under watch. -
The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) was a meeting of European powers to restore order after Napoleon’s defeat. It aimed to balance power and reinstate monarchies to ensure lasting peace in Europe. -
Louis XVIII was King of France from 1814 to 1824, except during Napoleon’s return in 1815. He restored the monarchy and ruled as a constitutional monarch after the French Revolution. -
The Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, marked Napoleon Bonaparte's final defeat by the British-led forces under Wellington and the Prussians under Blücher. -
On June 18, 1815, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by a coalition of European forces, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars. -
The Spanish Liberal Biennium (1820–1823) was a period of liberal rule after a military uprising restored the 1812 Constitution. It ended with French intervention and the return of absolute monarchy under Ferdinand VII. -
After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St. Helena, where he lived under British supervision until his death in 1821. -
The Independence of Greece began in 1821 with a revolt against Ottoman rule. It was achieved in 1830 with support from Britain, France, and Russia. -
Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, in exile on St. Helena, likely from stomach cancer, marking the final end of his long and turbulent reign. -
Charles X was King of France from 1824 to 1830 and pursued conservative, pro-monarchist policies. His rule ended with the July Revolution, forcing him to abdicate and flee the country. -
The Independence of Belgium began with a revolution in 1830 against Dutch rule. It was officially recognized in 1831, and Belgium became a constitutional monarchy. -
Louis-Philippe was King of France from 1830 to 1848, known as the "Citizen King" for his middle-class origins. His reign ended with the 1848 revolution, leading to the establishment of the French Second Republic. -
The Zollverein was a German customs union established in 1834 to create economic unity among German states. It promoted free trade and paved the way for political unification under Prussia. -
The French Second Republic was established in 1848 after the overthrow of Louis-Philippe. It lasted until 1852, when Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III. -
The Revolution of 1848, also called the Spring of Nations, was a series of uprisings across Europe demanding liberal reforms and national independence. Though most were suppressed, they marked a turning point in European political and social movements. -
France's Second Republic was established in 1848 after the fall of King Louis-Philippe. It introduced universal male suffrage and ended in 1852 when Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte declared the Second Empire. -
France's Second Empire began in 1852 when Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. His rule saw modernization and expansion but ended with defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. -
The Battles of Magenta and Solferino were fought in 1859 during the Second Italian War of Independence. Franco-Sardinian forces defeated Austria, helping to drive them out of northern Italy. -
In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand and conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. His victory was key to the unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. -
Victor Emmanuel II became the first King of a unified Italy in 1861. He played a central role in the unification process alongside leaders like Cavour and Garibaldi. -
The Danish-Prussian War of 1864 was fought over control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark, gaining influence in German-speaking territories. -
The Austrian-Prussian War of 1866, also called the Seven Weeks' War, was a conflict over dominance in Germany. Prussia's victory excluded Austria from German affairs and led to the formation of the North German Confederation. -
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) was a conflict between France and Prussia that ended in French defeat. It led to the fall of Napoleon III and the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. -
Wilhelm I was the first Kaiser of the German Empire, reigning from 1871 to 1888. His leadership during the unification of Germany under Prussia solidified his role in the creation of the Second Reich. -
Peaceful protesters in St. Petersburg are shot by imperial troops.
The massacre sparks widespread unrest and the 1905 Revolution. -
Sailors revolt against brutal conditions aboard the Potemkin.
The mutiny becomes a powerful symbol of resistance to Tsarist rule. -
Tsar Nicholas II promises civil liberties and creates the Duma. These reforms aim to calm revolutionary unrest. -
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated in Sarajevo.
This event triggers the chain reaction that leads to World War I. -
Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia after the assassination.
The conflict rapidly expands as alliances are activated. -
Germany declares war on Russia in support of Austria-Hungary.
World War I spreads across Europe. -
Strikes and protests erupt in Petrograd over food shortages.
Mutinies in the army lead to the collapse of Tsarist authority. -
Nicholas II abdicates the throne, ending the Romanov dynasty. Russia becomes a provisional republic. -
Lenin arrives in Petrograd and calls for “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
He pushes for Bolshevik control and an end to the war. -
Bolsheviks seize key points in Petrograd, including the Winter Palace. The Provisional Government is overthrown. -
The Congress officially endorses Bolshevik rule.
A new socialist government is formed. -
The Bolshevik government signs an armistice with Germany. Russia effectively withdraws from World War I. -
The Red Army fights Whites, Greens, and nationalist forces. The war devastates Russia but ends in Bolshevik victory.
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Russia signs peace with the Central Powers.
The country exits WWI but loses significant territory. -
The Czech Legion rises against Bolshevik forces.
This uprising helps ignite the Russian Civil War. -
Tsar Nicholas II and his family are executed in Yekaterinburg. This ends hopes of restoring the monarchy. -
The armistice ends fighting in World War I.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is later annulled. -
Lenin launches the NEP to revive the economy.
Limited capitalism is allowed after years of war and famine. -
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is officially created. Bolshevik power is consolidated across former Russian territories. -
Vladimir Lenin dies after a series of strokes.
A power struggle begins between Stalin and Trotsky.