-
: Modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa around 200,000–300,000 years ago and began migrating out of East Africa approximately 60,000–70,000 years ago. These early humans spread into Asia, Europe, and eventually the rest of the world, replacing or interbreeding with local archaic humans like Neanderthals and Denisovans. Genetic evidence, especially from mitochondrial DNA, supports this as the origin of all modern humans. -
This controversial theory proposes that people from the Solutrean culture of Ice Age Europe (modern-day France and Spain) crossed the Atlantic Ocean along the ice edge in small boats around 20,000 years ago and were among the first to populate North America. Supporters point to similarities between Solutrean stone tools and early Clovis tools found in North America. However, the hypothesis is widely rejected by most archaeologists due to lack of solid genetic and archaeological evidence. -
This theory suggests that the first humans to reach the Americas migrated from Asia along the Pacific coastline in boats or by walking nearshore routes, shortly after the Last Glacial Maximum. They followed kelp forests and marine resources, arriving in the Americas before the opening of the inland ice-free corridor. Archaeological sites like Monte Verde in Chile support this early coastal entry. -
This widely accepted theory proposes that the first humans entered the Americas from Siberia by crossing the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia), which connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age when sea levels were lower. Migrants traveled through an ice-free corridor into the interior of North America, eventually spreading across the continent. This theory is supported by archaeological and genetic evidence, including the Clovis culture. -
Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte develop the foundations of positivism, advocating for a scientific approach to social and historical study. Comte formulates the "Law of Three Stages": theological, metaphysical, and positive (scientific). Emphasis on empirical evidence and logical reasoning begins influencing historiography. History is treated as a science of facts, not narrative. -
John Stuart Mill promotes empirical analysis in social sciences. He supports the idea that historical events can be analyzed scientifically. Pushes for methodical, evidence-based historical writing. Reinforces positivist methodology in British academic circles. -
Historicism emerges as a response to positivism. Wilhelm Dilthey and Benedetto Croce argue for interpretation over general laws. History is shaped by human experience and cultural context. Emphasis on the uniqueness of historical events. -
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels introduce Marxist historiography. Class struggle and material conditions become central to historical analysis. Society's economic base determines its cultural and ideological superstructure. History seen as a series of dialectical conflicts. -
Rise of scientific history in German universities, especially under Leopold von Ranke. Although not explicitly named, this laid groundwork for positivist methods in history. Emphasis on "wie es eigentlich gewesen" ("how it actually happened"). Historical study becomes more professionalized and source-critical.
-
Founding of the Annales School with the journal Annales d'histoire économique et sociale. Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre launch a critique of political narrative history. They promote a focus on social structures and everyday life. Introduce interdisciplinary methods into historical study. -
Widespread disillusionment with traditional nationalistic history after the war. Historians turn to social sciences for new frameworks — boosting Annales School influence. Annales scholars like Braudel gain global prominence. Shift toward global, structural, and comparative history begins.
-
Fernand Braudel develops the concept of longue durée (long-term structures). Emphasis shifts to geography, economy, and social conditions as slow-moving forces in history. Braudel's work marks a major shift toward structuralist history. Time is viewed in multiple layers, beyond political events.
-
Third generation of Annales historians adopts cultural history and microhistory. Inclusion of diverse perspectives, including marginalized voices. Growing use of quantitative methods and interdisciplinary tools. Focus on collective mentalities and long-term historical patterns. -
Mexican historians influenced by Annales begin exploring social and cultural life. Move away from purely political narratives toward people-centered history. Luis González pioneers microhistory with Pueblo en Vilo, analyzing local realities. Encourages study of regional variation during the Mexican Revolution. -
Growing interest in subaltern studies and bottom-up history. Inspired in part by the Annales School and Marxist analysis. Historians begin studying peasants, women, and indigenous groups. Mexican history becomes more inclusive and interdisciplinary.