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The Ancien Régime was a political, economic, and social system predominant in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was characterized by an absolute monarchy, a society divided into estates, and a primarily agrarian economy. This regime was the result of the transition from medieval feudalism to capitalism, and it came to an end with the French Revolution in 1789.
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Liberalism is a political, economic, and social doctrine that promotes individual freedom, equality before the law, and limited state power.
It emerged in England and France between the 17th and 18th centuries as a reaction to absolute monarchy, inspired by Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau.
It strengthened after the Glorious Revolution (1688), spread during the Enlightenment, and peaked with the Liberal Revolutions of the 19th century in Europe. -
John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher and physician (1632-1704), considered the father of empiricism and political liberalism. He was born near Bristol, studied at Oxford University, and was interested in science, medicine, and politics. His ideas about government, tolerance, and knowledge, such as the mind as a "tabula rasa" or blank slate, greatly influenced the Enlightenment and revolutions such as the American Revolution and the Glorious Revolution in England. -
Montesquieu was an 18th-century French philosopher, jurist, and writer in Europe, considered one of the most important thinkers of the Enlightenment. He popularized the theory of the separation of powers of the state in his work 'The Spirit of the Laws' in 1748. His work defended individual freedom and criticized despotism and absolutism. -
François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778) is a dominant intellectual figure of his century and one of the main thinkers of the Enlightenment. He stood out for his active defense of freedom of thought, especially religious freedom. From a deist standpoint, he repudiated the excessive power of the clergy and advocated for a religion based on reason and respect, far from fanaticism and intolerance. He was a supporter of a parliamentary system. -
The Enlightenment, also known as the "Age of Reason," developed mainly in the 18th century and was a period of significant changes in culture, politics, and philosophy. This movement arose as a reaction against religious dogmatism and absolute authority, promoting the use of reason as the main source of knowledge.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a philosopher who supported national sovereignty. He maintained that sovereignty resides in the people and from it emanate all individual rights. -
Adam Smith was a Scottish economist and philosopher of the Enlightenment, born in 1723 and died in 1790. He is considered the father of modern economics and liberalism. His most influential work, "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), laid the foundations of classical economics by proposing concepts such as the division of labor, free trade, and the "invisible hand" of the market, which holds that individuals seeking their own self-interest contribute to the general well-being of society. -
George Washington was born in 1732 in Virginia. He led the Continental Army to victory in the American Revolutionary War and became the first President of the United States in 1789, serving two terms. Washington set key precedents for the presidency and retired to Mount Vernon, where he died in 1799. He is remembered as the “Father of His Country.” -
James Watt (1736–1819) was a Scottish engineer whose major improvements to the steam engine, especially the separate condenser, made it far more efficient and helped drive the Industrial Revolution. He partnered with Matthew Boulton to produce widely used steam engines, and the unit of power—the watt—is named after him. -
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) was an American Founding Father and the third U.S. President. He wrote the Declaration of Independence, served as Secretary of State and Vice President, and oversaw the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson was also a scholar and founded the University of Virginia. Though he promoted liberty, he was a slave owner. -
Olympe de Gouges was a French writer, playwright, and activist of the French Revolution, known as one of the pioneers of feminism for her defense of women's rights. In 1791, she drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Citizen, a founding text of feminism that replicated the 1789 Declaration of Man to denounce the invisibility of women. For her criticism of the Jacobin government and her defense of a moderate monarchy, she was arrested and guillotined in 1793. -
Louis XVI (1754–1793) was the King of France from 1774 until 1792. He struggled to manage France’s financial crisis and resist growing revolutionary movements. His indecision and unpopular policies contributed to the French Revolution. Louis XVI was eventually deposed, tried for treason, and executed by guillotine in 1793. -
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) was a French lawyer and revolutionary leader. He played a central role in the French Revolution and became a leading member of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre advocated equality, universal male suffrage, and protection of the revolution, often using harsh measures. His rigid ideals led to his arrest and execution by guillotine in 1794. -
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an English writer and philosopher considered a precursor to feminism, known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). She pioneered the argument that women's apparent inferiority was not natural, but rather the result of a lack of access to education. Her life was marked by her struggle against family tyranny, her pursuit of economic independence through various jobs, and her role as mother to the writer Mary Shelley. -
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) was a French military leader and emperor. He rose to prominence during the French Revolution, becoming First Consul and later Emperor of France. Napoleon is known for his military genius, expanding the French Empire across much of Europe,and implementing reforms,including the Napoleonic Code. After defeats, he was exiled to Elba, escaped, returned during the 100 days, and finally defeated at Waterloo. He spent his last years in exile on Saint Helena,dying in 1821. -
The First Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain in the mid-18th century and extended throughout the 19th century, transformed the agrarian and artisanal economy into an industrial economy thanks to innovations such as the steam engine, textile mechanization, the use of coal, and the development of the railway; these changes spurred the growth of cities and the emergence of the industrial working class.
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The United States began its fight for independence in 1775 due to British taxes and lack of representation. In 1776, the colonies declared independence through the Declaration of Independence.
With French support, the Americans won key battles and in 1781 the British surrendered at Yorktown. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 officially recognized the United States as an independent nation. -
George Stephenson (1781–1848) was an English engineer and inventor known as the “Father of Railways”. He built the first successful steam locomotive, the Rocket, and helped develop the railway system that transformed transportation during the Industrial Revolution. His work made rail travel faster, safer, and more efficient, laying the foundation for modern railways. -
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a political, social, and economic movement that overthrew the absolute monarchy of Louis XVI and ended the privileges of the nobility and clergy.
Driven by the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, it led to the abolition of the monarchy, the creation of the Republic, and the recognition of citizens’ rights.
It ended in 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte seized power, starting the Consulate.. -
The National Assembly was created by the Third Estate to limit the king's power and draft a new constitution.
It passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, abolished feudal privileges, and established a constitutional monarchy.
It was replaced in 1791 by the Legislative Assembly.
In May 1789, the king ordered its dissolution.
On July 14, 1789, the storming of the Bastille -
The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1789 during the French Revolution when members of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly. Its main goal was to draft a new constitution for France. The Assembly abolished feudal privileges, issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and reorganized the political and administrative system. It ended in 1791 after completing the Constitution, which established a constitutional monarchy
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Economic liberalism, which emerged between the late 18th and early 19th centuries, is a doctrine that advocates economic freedom, private property, and minimal state intervention in the economy. Inspired by thinkers such as Adam Smith, it maintains that the market, through supply and demand, is self-regulating and leads to progress and general well-being.
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The Legislative Assembly succeeded the Constituent Assembly in 1791. It was created to apply the new Constitution and govern France under the constitutional monarchy. However, it faced deep political divisions and growing radicalism. Internal conflicts and wars against foreign powers weakened it, leading to the fall of the monarchy and the rise of the National Convention in 1792
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The Girondin Convention was the first phase of the National Convention during the French Revolution, from 1792 to 1793. Dominated by the moderate Girondins, it abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the French Republic. However, internal conflicts and external wars weakened their power. The Girondins were eventually overthrown by the radical Montagnards in mid-1793.
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The Montagnard Convention was the radical phase of the French National Convention, from 1793 to 1794. Led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, it established the Reign of Terror to defend the Revolution from internal and external enemies. The monarchy was abolished, and King Louis XVI was executed. The Convention ended with Robespierre’s fall in 1794, marking the end of the Terror.
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The Directory was the government of France from 1795 to 1799, established after the fall of the Montagnard Convention. It was led by five directors and aimed to bring stability after the Reign of Terror. However, it faced corruption, economic problems, and political unrest. The regime ended when Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in 1799, starting the Consulate.
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19th century nationalisms argued that each people with a shared language, culture, and history should form its own state.
In Western Europe, they acted as a unifying force, achieving the unification of Italy and Germany.
In the large multinational empires, such as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, they had a disintegrating effect, fueling independence movements (Hungarians, Czechs, Greeks, Serbs...).
Overall, they changed the map of Europe and increased political tensions on the continent. -
The Napoleonic Empire was established in 1804 when Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of France. He expanded French territory across Europe and introduced reforms like the Napoleonic Code, modernizing laws and administration.
His conquests faced resistance from European coalitions. After the failed invasion of Russia in 1812 and defeats like Leipzig, Napoleon abdicated in 1814. He returned during the Hundred Days but was finally defeated at Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena. -
Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) was the 16th President of the United States. Born in a log cabin in Kentucky, he taught himself, became a lawyer, and entered politics. As president, he led the country through the Civil War, preserved the Union, and issued the Emancipation Proclamation to begin ending slavery. He is remembered for his leadership, honesty, and speeches like the Gettysburg Address. Lincoln was assassinated in 1865, leaving a lasting legacy. -
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) was a French philosopher and political thinker, often considered the father of anarchism. He criticized private property, famously calling it “theft,” and advocated for mutualism a system of cooperative, self-managed communities. Proudhon’s ideas influenced anarchist and socialist movements throughout Europe. -
Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876) was a Russian revolutionary and philosopher, one of the founding figures of anarchism. He advocated for the abolition of the state and all hierarchical authority, promoting direct action and grassroots organization. Bakunin’s ideas influenced anarchist movements across Europe and shaped debates within socialist and revolutionary circles. -
The Restoration followed Napoleon’s defeat in 1814, restoring European monarchies, starting with Louis XVIII in France. The Congress of Vienna reorganized Europe to maintain stability, and alliances like the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance aimed to suppress revolutions. This period faced unrest and liberal movements demanding constitutions. In France, it ended with the July Revolution of 1830, bringing Louis-Philippe to the throne and moving toward a constitutional monarchy.
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In the 19th century, nationalism grew across Europe, inspired by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. It could be unifying, as in the unification of Italy and Germany, or disintegrating, fueling revolts in multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism strengthened national identity but also caused tensions and conflicts between states and ethnic groups.
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Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary thinker. He co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels and wrote Das Kapital, analyzing capitalism and advocating for class struggle and a society without private property. His ideas became the foundation of Marxism and influenced socialist and communist movements worldwide. -
-1820: Revolution in Spain in which King Ferdinand VII was forced to accept the Constitution of 1812. The Holy Alliance intervened. -1821: The Greek people revolted against the Ottoman Empire and gained independence in 1829. This revolution spread to parts of Italy and Spanish America.
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Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) was a German philosopher, social scientist, and businessman. He co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx and supported Marx financially and intellectually. Engels analyzed capitalism and class struggle, helping develop Marxist theory and influencing socialist movements worldwide. -
The revolutionary waves were a series of liberal and nationalist movements that swept across Europe in three main periods: 1820, 1830, and 1848. Fueled by opposition to absolutism and the restoration of the old regime, they sought the recognition of rights, freedoms, national sovereignty, and the creation of nation-states. Economic crisis, social demands, and the consolidation of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat also played a key role in these revolutions.
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-1830: Philippe d'Orléans establishes a liberal monarchy in France. -1831: Belgium gains independence, and Poland unsuccessfully rises up against the Russian Empire. There are also revolts in some Italian states.
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Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was an American inventor and businessman who developed many devices that shaped modern life, including the practical electric light bulb, the phonograph, and motion picture technology. He held over 1,000 patents and founded Edison Laboratories, driving innovations that fueled the Second Industrial Revolution. -
The Revolution of 1848 in France overthrew the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe due to political, social, and economic discontent.
The Second Republic was proclaimed, establishing universal male suffrage and social reforms such as the National Workshops.
The repression of the June Days workers' uprising weakened the new regime.
Ultimately, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president and established the Second Empire in 1852. -
Italian unification was a process that sought to unite the numerous states and kingdoms of the peninsula under a single government.
It was led by figures such as Cavour (politics and diplomacy), Garibaldi (military action), and King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont.
After conquests and alliances, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861, although Rome and Venice were not yet integrated.
Unification was completed with the annexation of Venice in 1866 and Rome in 1870, making it the capital. -
The Second Industrial Revolution took place between the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. It was characterized by the use of new energy sources such as electricity and oil, the development of the chemical industry, steel production, the internal combustion engine, and advancements such as the telephone, the automobile, and assembly line production. This period spurred greater globalization, the growth of large corporations, and a profound economic and social transformation.