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Initially named the International Council for the Education of Exceptional Children, the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) was founded by 12 educators from Teachers College at Columbia University. The association was founded by Elizabeth E. Farell, who also served as the CEC's first president. Since its establishment in 1922, the CEC has been central to the development of landmark legislation for special education. Council for Exceptional Children -
The Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC) was founded by parents who aimed to advocate for their children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. It grew into one of the largest grassroots organizations in the U.S. promoting rights, services, and public awareness. The ARC played a central role in lobbying for laws like EHA and IDEA. -
Brown v. Board of Education was the U.S Supreme Court Case that ruled "separate is inherently unequal." Despite its initial focus on racial segregation, advocates later used its equal-protection reasoning to argue for students with disabilities to be educated with peers when appropriate. This reasoning shaped future policies supporting Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). -
Established by President John F. Kennedy, the President's Panel on Mental Retardation issued recommendations to improve education, research, and community services for individuals with disabilities. It marked the first major federal effort to address disability policy. The panel's work paved the way for future legislation. -
PARC v. Pennsylvania was a U.S. District Court case that established the right to a free public education for children with intellectual disabilities. The case challenged state laws that allowed schools to exclude students considered "uneducable." The 1972 consent decree guaranteed Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) and reinforced the principle of Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), influencing future special education policies. -
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia was the U.S. District Court case that ruled schools could not exclude students with disabilities because of budget limitations. The ruling required due process protections and appropriate services for all children. This decision built on PARC v. Pennsylvania and shaped the foundation for modern special education law in the United States. -
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was the first federal civil rights law protecting individuals with disabilities. It prohibited discrimination in any program receiving federal funds, including public schools. The law required accommodations and access, supporting inclusion in general education. Introduction to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 -
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) guaranteed Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) to all children with disabilities. It required individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and education in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). This law laid the foundation for IDEA and expanded access nationwide. -
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a landmark civil rights law prohibiting discrimination against people with disabilities in public life. In education, it strengthened accessibility and reinforced equal opportunity for students. The ADA complemented Section 504 and advanced inclusive practices. -
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) reauthorized and renamed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) while expanding eligibility to include autism and traumatic brain injury. It also required transition services for life after school. The law reinforced students' rights to education in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). -
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was signed into law by President Bush in 2002, significantly expanding the federal role in K-12 education. The law emphasized accountability through annual testing and required schools to report subgroup results, including students with disabilities. For the first time, schools were held responsible for the academic progress of students with disabilities, raising expectations and requiring appropriate accommodations. -
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was signed into law by President Barack Obama and replaced No Child Left Behind. It gave states greater flexibility in designing accountability systems while maintaining requirements for annual testing in reading and math. The law continued to provide strong protections for students with disabilities, requiring their performance to be tracked as a subgroup and ensuring access to the same academic standards as their peers.